September 2011, Discoveries

Ancient Peru: The Origins of Culture

By Kimberly Munro   Sun, Aug 28, 2011

The first part of the Ancient Peru series focused on the Pre-Ceramic Period, a time period in Peru that set the foundation for the great cultures to follow. The Pre-Ceramic gave rise to the earliest signs of agriculture, more sedentary societies, the construction of monumental public architecture and the New World’s earliest cities. Part II of this Series will focus on the Initial Period of Peru. Starting at the end of the Pre-Ceramic Period, the Initial Period includes major architectural and agricultural developments, as well as the introduction of ceramic technologies.

The Initial Period in Peru dates from 1800 - 800 BC and is defined by the introduction of ceramic technology and a shift towards permanent settlement structures dependent on plant and animal domestication. Though there was some level of agriculture in the late Pre-Ceramic (mainly cotton and gourd floodplain agriculture), the Initial Period is defined by full scale irrigation agriculture. The crops domesticated during the Initial Period were expanded to include peanuts, beans, avocados, potato, quinoa, squash, and other fruits and vegetables.  The monumental architecture which was introduced during the Pre-Ceramic continues to evolve, with two distinct architectural themes emerging.

The earliest ceramics appear in coastal sites initially established during the Pre-Ceramic and which continued to be utilized through the Initial Period, such as El Paraiso. Later Initial Period constructions are located inland roughly 15-20 km from the coast. Agricultural improvements such as irrigation canals allowed coastal peoples to depend less on marine resources and slowly move farther from the coast into valleys that could now be farmed more effectively.  Construction techniques also changed dramatically during the Initial Period. Monuments were no longer constructed by small stones carried in shicra or fiber bags. During this period, adobe mud brick construction commonly decorated with plaster and colorful clay friezes starts to appear.

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Late Initial Period Ceramic vessel, stirrup spout from the Northern Coast, courtesy of author, taken at The Museo Nacional de Arqueología Antropología e Historia del Perú

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The monumental architecture defining the Initial Period is found on the northern coast of Peru from the Lambayeque valley south to the Lurin valley on the central coast, although the architecture found on the central coast differs from the northern coast constructions. Monuments on the central coast are arranged in a U-shape, including a large temple mound in the center and long linear mounds on either side of the temple mound. The opening to the U-shaped plaza faces the headwaters of the valley. Northern coast constructions however include large rectangular terraced mounds, sunken plazas and sunken circular courts, which are similar to those from the Pre-Ceramic period.

The Initial Period – Central Coast

The earliest of the U-Shaped Inital Period monuments is known as Huaca La Florida, located in the Rimac Valley south of the Pre-ceramic site El Paraiso, which was discussed in part I of the series. El Paraiso was utilized well into the Initial Period and is believed to be the prototype for U-Shaped constructions. Some differences exist between the early U-shaped monuments found in the Pre-Ceramic and those found later at Initial Period sites.  The size of the central platform mounds increases and is fully conjoined with at least one of the lateral mounds (Burger, 1992).

Some of the earliest ceramics of the Initial Period were found at La Florida. Huaca La Florida dates to approximately 1600 BC and like other U-Shaped structures consists of massive terraced platform mounds flanking the sides of a large rectangular plaza (Burger, 1992). Huaca La Florida was built and utilized for a relatively short period, approximately 400 years, and archaeologists have found evidence of habitation at the base of the central mound.

Garagay is another U-shaped monumental construction built in the Rimac valley. Garagay can be found within the modern capitol city of Lima, approximately 8km inland from the Pacific and the remnants of the site that are still intact cover 16 hectares. The U-shaped construction also includes a small circular court, and the plaza area itself covers 9 hectares.  The large central mound was a flat topped pyramid 23 meters high, with the right and left lateral mounds 6 and 9 meters in height respectively. Excavations revealed the stairway leading up to the central mound was plastered in white clay and the central pyramid was covered with decorated clay friezes.  Supernatural beings were represented on these clay friezes, as well as spiders and possibly felines.  The motifs at Garagay include beings with large fangs and eccentric shaped eyes with large pupils. This motif in particular is a prototype that becomes prominent in the later Chavin culture. It is important to note that the motifs found on friezes and decorations within Garagay’s public architecture are also found on the domestic pottery utilized at nearby fishing villages. The repetition of these symbols in the domestic sphere suggests their importance not only in sacred space but also in daily life.  Garagay has been radio-carbon dated from 1643 - 897 BC and it has been suggested that it was constructed shortly after the abandonment of the nearby Huaca La Florida.

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Frieze at Garagay with an example of an anthropomorphic figure, Wikimedia Commons.

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Located in the southernmost extent of U-shaped centers, in the Lurin valley, Cardal can be found approximately 35km south of Garagay and 15km from the Pacific. A contemporary of Garagay, the occupation at Cardal has been dated to 1300 - 900 BC. Cardal’s architectural features include a ceremonial road approaching from the northeast, rectangular enclosures, 8 sunken circular courts and a sunken central plaza. Over 30 stairs lead to the summit of the main pyramid and, like Garagay, these stairs are decorated with white clay. An atrium was also found at Cardal, but unlike Garagay’s atrium it was not decorated with colorful friezes. Earlier constructions at Cardal however did reveal friezes and more anthropomorphic figures with large canine teeth. Excavations revealed at least 5 stages of construction and “ritual entombment” of the site. In one of the sunken circular courts offerings were found including a human skull and a ceramic bottle featuring interlocking snakes. To date, Cardal appears to be one of the latest U-shaped centers in the Initial Period.

Archaeologists believe this change of construction with the opening of the U-shaped plaza facing the mountains and headwaters of the valley illustrate the change in reliance from marine resources to agricultural resources. It is at this point in time that researchers believe prehistoric people started worshipping mountain peaks, or Apus, a practice which is still practiced by certain Andean groups. “The veneration of mountain peaks may date back as far as the Initial Period. According to Carlos Williams, it seems that early coastal U-shaped centers turned their backs on the sea and faced up river towards the important source of irrigation water (Moseley 2001; Williams 1985).”

The construction of the U-shape reflects basic cosmological principals and beliefs underlying the religious worship at these centers (Burger 1992). In addition, researchers believe these centers were also used for fertility rituals related to agriculture. The presence of spiders/arachnid motifs at Garagay and Cardal is evidence of fertility rituals, as spiders were used in late pre-Hispanic times to predict the onset of rainfall and other agricultural matters. In some parts of the highlands spiders are still used today in similar rituals.

Archaeologist William Isbell has speculated that the meaning behind the U-shaped design expresses the opposing and complementary forces with the cosmos and society. Isbell also believes the central mound represents the synthesis of these two forces. This belief in duality and opposing forces can still be found today among tropical forest groups and was present in the buildings by the Inca. (Burger, 1992).

The Initial Period on the Northern Coast

On the northern coast Initial Period architecture is constructed differently. Only rarely are the U-shaped monuments found north of the Chancay drainage.  Instead, the northern coast monuments include several sunken circular courts and sunken rectangular plazas that are commonly associated with a large flat topped terraced pyramid. Though central coast sites occasionally contain sunken circular plazas, they are often later constructions and built off to the side of the main pyramid temple. On the northern coast, circular sunken plazas are usually associated directly with the large rectangular pyramids. These differences in construction suggest that the north coast was an independent field of social and religious interaction (Burger, 1992).

Cerro Sechin is located in the Casma valley near the juncture of the Sechin and Moxeke rivers and approximately 14 km from the Pacific coast. A three-tiered platform mound measuring 53 meters high and flanked by two smaller buildings on each side was the main construction at Cerro Sechin. A circular depression was originally observed by archaeologist Julio Tello and believed to be a possible sunken circular court. The outer retaining wall which surrounds the pyramid measures over four meters high and was decorated with over 400 stone sculptures. These sculptures are believed to represent either a mythical or historical scene, and are arranged along the platform wall in two columns approaching each other from opposing sides. The sculptures depict warriors, most of them defeated, bound, naked and often bleeding or shown in distress or anguish. Bodies are wounded and represented as bleeding with their entrails and intestines spilling out. The larger of the sculptures depict victorious warriors with arms raised holding decapitated heads. The sculptures are carved out of granite from a quarry behind the site, without the benefit of metal tools.  Excavations at Cerro Sechin have revealed four total construction phases, with the earliest constructions having been built out of adobe mud bricks, and only in the later stages of construction are the granite slabs added. Cerro Sechin was abandoned by 800 BC at the end of the Initial Period.

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   Cerro Sechin head carvings, Wikimedia Commons 

Cerro Sechin sculpture illustrating a captivey cut in half, blood and intestines spilling out. Courtesy of author, The Museo Nacional de Arqueología Antropología e Historia del Perú

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Sechin Alto is another Initial Period monument on the northern coast, located only 2km from Cerro Sechin.  Comprised of a large rectangular pyramid mound, five plazas, and three sunken circular courts, it has been radio-carbon dated to 1720 BC and is believed to have been occupied for 1000 years. Sechin Alto has the largest pyramid of the Casma valley measuring 250 x 300 meters at the base and 44 meters high. Its main mound rose to the same height as a nine-story building and is one of the largest architectural complexes in the New World. The earliest constructions at Sechin Alto were built with mud bricks, and later faced with granite blocks. Anthropomorphic figures and trophy heads have also been discovered at the nearby site of Moxeke, also in the Casma valley. These figures and sculptures discovered at Moxeke include large decapitated heads baring their teeth, anthropomorphic figures wearing tunics and carrying snakes and carvings of human hands. Like the central coast, feline iconography with long curved teeth have also been found on the northern coast, laying the ground work for the later Chavin culture.

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Sechin Alto decapitated head, Wikimedia Commons

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Defining the Initial Period

As mentioned in Part I of the series, Ritual Entombment continued on throughout the Initial Period. Both the northern and central coast cultures practiced ritual entombment, and though they both had different construction themes, there was some overlap. Circular sunken plazas which made their appearance in the Pre-Ceramic Period continue to be a major feature of public architecture for sites on the northern coast. Occasionally, central coast sites such as Cardal utilize sunken circular courts, though these make an appearance later on during the Initial Period and are not primary structures. Both the central and northern coasts experience complex agriculture and utilize canal constructions as an irrigation technique. During this time plant foods increase dramatically throughout coastal sites, and coca leaves make their appearance at coastal sites. Though ceramics start out in the Initial Period as basic simplistic forms, they quickly become more complicated and include stirrup spot vessels and intricate patterns and polishes. Initial Period sites utilize plaster in their constructions, clay friezes, and stone sculpture works. Anthropomorphic figures with large fangs also make an appearance, an important iconography continuing into the Early Horizon and laying the ground work for the Great Mother Culture which would follow, the Chavin (Part III of this series).

By Kimberly Munro

Kimberly Munro is an archaeologist with seven years experience working for the United States Forest Service and the National Park Service. With excavation experience throughout the Southeastern United States and the Northern Coast and Central Highlands of Peru, Kimberly received her B.A. in Anthropology and Religious Studies, and her M.S. in Geographic Information Sciences from Florida State University. She has been involved with the PIARA Archaeological Field School located in the highlands of Peru since 2011, and will be returning to work as a crew chief for PIARA in the summer of 2012. With interests in GIS applications in Archaeology, remote sensing, landscape and settlement patterns, and coastal/highland interaction in central Peru, Kimberly will be starting work on her PhD at Louisiana State University in the fall of 2012.