Beyond the devastation and tragedy of human lives precipitated by the conflict in Syria, priceless representations of ancient culture and history have likewise fallen victim to a seemingly never-ending maelstrom of destruction. Ancient monuments and art have either been destroyed, damaged, or lost as chaos persists in a region that has for thousands of years seen the footprint of a parade of civilizations. Missing but not forgotten among these cultural victims is one very important Roman mosaic — a floor mosaic that tells a history of the great ancient city of Apamea, an important Greek and Roman hub of the Levant. Like many other splendid and unique mosaic floors, this one was unfortunately cut from its bedding, smuggled abroad and sold on the black market to a foreign collector by an organized group of professional antiquities thieves. However, the panel was photographed with a cell phone by an anonymous person. The images were passed on to specialists by pure coincidence, and today it is one of the most valuable objects wanted by INTERPOL.
The uniqueness of this Roman mosaic, discovered and stolen in 2011, warrants its presentation here, based on the presumption that the panel originated most probably from Apamea, one of the most important classical sites in Syria.
A Slice of Material History
The panel was likely part of a larger work from a very large hall of a wealthy residence belonging to perhaps the most important person in the local and Roman administration officiating in Apamea. This rectangular figural panel, an estimated 19 m2 in size, was surrounded with a geometrical frame. It comprised different scenes arranged in three zones, one above the other, the one in the middle wider than the other two, which are otherwise of the same dimensions. The scenes are historical, extremely rare on Roman mosaics. They tell the story of the founding of Pella/Apamea and further development of this city on the Orontes river. Three main groups of scenes can be distinguished: (1) the foundation of Pella-on-the-Orontes by the legendary Archippos, (2) the (re)foundation of the city as Apamea-on-the-Orontes (earlier Pella-on-the-Orontes) by Seleucus I Nikator and the simultaneous financial generosity of his wife, Apama, for the development of the new Seleucid colony in 300 BC, and (3) the raising of the town fortifications around monumental public buildings and an illustration of the daily life of a joyous people living in the rich Apamean agglomeration and hinterland. Features of style date the panels to the 4th century AD.
The photographic image shows that the lower zone and about half of the central zone of the mosaic floor were not preserved. The rest of the panel is in good condition, save for a few minor losses.
The religious act of the foundation of Pella-on-the-Orontes
The upper zone of this floor mosaic is filled with a scene composed of ten figures. On one side there are five Macedonian light cavalrymen – strong men with their horses, shields and spears. On the other side, there is a religious scene, a cult offering being made by five figures, three of which are identified by inscriptions in Greek. Archippos, the legendary founder of Pella-on-the-Orontes, is shown with a patter in his right hand, held above the bodies of sacrificial bulls. He is accompanied on either side by two of the Diadochi, successors of Alexander the Great, namely Antipater and his son Kassander. All three are dressed in rich tunics, pallia and diadems. Crowning the scene is an eagle with spread wings symbolizing Zeus.
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Fig. 1. Upper zone of the mosaic from Apamea. Representation of a cult offering made by Archippos before the diadochi Antipater and his son Kassander, and the Macedonian cavalry, occasioned by the founding of the Macedonian colony of Pella-on-the-Orontes. Anonymous photographer, image modified and sharpened by D. Zielińska.
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The (re)foundation of Apamea – the royal generosity of Seleucus and Apama
The central zone presents scenes that can be divided into three groups: (1) six richly attired people around a large table (mensa argentaria), (2) a city with monumental buildings, and (3) craftsmen and workers building the fortifications. Silver and gold coins cover the tabletop. All the figures standing and sitting around the table have Greek captions. One of them is Seleucus I Nikator, recognized also by the bull’s horns. He holds in his hands an architect’s measure, symbol of the king as founder of the city (ktistes). Antipater is looking on. Sitting at the table are Archippos, Apama – first wife of Seleucus, Kassander and Antiochus I Soter, son of Seleucus, who became a very powerful ruler. They are all dressed exquisitely like Hellenistic rulers should be, in tunics and pallia, and they wear diadems. Apama has her head draped and wears a chiton and himation.
The city is surrounded by huge defense walls. Apama contributes an enormous sum of money for the construction of the city. Seleucus is shown as the founder, whereas the other diadochi are present and express with gestures their solidarity with the queen and her act of generosity, suggesting at the same time their personal contribution to the development of the town. A temple on a high podium rises behind Seleucus; one can see the roof with a tympanum in front, set on five columns; a few columns can also be seen in the side elevation. Behind the general and the rulers there is a large oval building with two structures on the long axis of the central inner courtyard. It is a hippodrome or Roman circus with a semi-oval base (meta) with three colonettes topped by an egg-shaped form, standing at either end of the spina or central axis. The circus is adjoined by a number of buildings, including one of monumental size. Inside the walls there are many different buildings beside the monumental temple, but the mosaic is fragmentary in this spot. At the bottom one can discern a large ox pulling something very heavy. Away from the town walls, on a small fragment, there is a semi-nude female figure personifying the springs that filled the Orontes (Belos) river, resting her arm on a vessel (?) with water pouring from it (?). Two builders are shown working on the fortifications. Outside the wall there are three other builders pushing one of the large dressed stone blocks and a fourth depicted walking.
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Fig. 2. Central zone of the mosaic from Apamea. (Re)foundation of Pella/Apamea-on-the-Orontes by Seleucus I Nikator and the donation of Apama for the development and fortification of the town. Other participants of the scene include Archippos, Antipater, Kassander and Antiochus I Soter. The representation of the town of Apamea shows its main buildings. In the bottom zone, the hinterland of the city of Apamea with a noria and baths. Anonymous photographer, image modified and sharpened by D. Zielińska.
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Apamea: prosperity and joy of suburban life
The third zone at the bottom of the panel depicts scenes showing the prosperity of the hinterland of the city of Apamea, possibly the plain of Ghȃb or other nearby regions on the Orontes. A splendid Roman bath catches the eye here, as does a noria on a river, which is most probably the Orontes. Two entrances can be seen, one leading most probably to the apodyterium (cloakroom), the other onto a ramp leading to a large pool. Three children are playing on the ramp and in the pool, while two women leading small children are entering the cloakroom. A fowler is hunting birds next to the baths and a man carrying a load can be seen on the road.
The mosaic as a new historical source for the history of Apamea
The hypothesis that this mosaic was one of a series of panels showing cities of the Tetrapolis founded by Seleucus I Nikator in 300 BC decorating a rich private house or a public building belonging to a high official of Apamea seems possible. The dating of the mosaic brings to mind the oration made by Libanios in honor of Antioch in AD 356.
It is noteworthy that the diadoch Antigonos, who is believed to be the “founder” of Pella-on-the-Orontes in modern scholarly literature, is not present in this panel, whereas Antipater and Kassander were shown twice as active contributors to the development of the Macedonian colony. The unknown source that inspired the creators of the mosaic in question gave Archippos (he is confirmed by Pseudo-Oppian) as the founder and suggested that Macedonian veterans colonized the city, possibly after the Battle of Issos in 333 BC. The colony gained in importance in the times of Antipater when he was regent of the empire in 321- 319 BC., and in the time when Kassander commanded the Macedonian cavalry stationed in Pella. The cavalry depicted in the mosaic as well as the way in which they are shown recall some iconographic scenes from the period of the Diadochi, e.g., the wall paintings from the tomb of Agios Athanasios from Thessaloniki and the sarcophagus of Alexander the Great from Sidon, today in the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul.
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Fig. 3. Macedonian cavalryman with his horses from the tomb of Agios Athanasios in Thessaloniki, dated to the end of the 4th century BC (after H. Brecoulaki, La peinture funéraire de Macédoine. Emplois et functions de la couleur, IVe-IIe siècle aavant J.-C., Athens-Paris 2006, pl. 96.2).
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The mosaic depicts historical events of the highest importance for the city of Apamea: after 333 BC and then in 300 BC. Meetings of rulers and generals, whose rule impacted the development of the colony and city, occurred between 321 and 261 BC (death of Antiochus I Soter). This points to the allegorical nature of the mosaic, emphasizing the circumstances of the founding and development of the city of Apamea. This narrative corresponds to an unknown and more detailed and complementary story of the origins of the town. The mosaic was inspired by unknown sources, perhaps Hellenistic pictures complemented with elements contemporary with the city of the 4th century AD. A possible source is the lost work of Euphorion of Chalcis describing the origins and development of Apamea. The mosaic is of exceptional significance for the history and iconography of the Diadochi. This is the first portrait of Apama, first wife of Seleucus I Nikator, to be preserved in Classical art. The panel is also an exceptional source for reconstructing the urban architecture of Apamea. For the first time we are treated to a view of the famous temple of Belos(?), the hippodrome (circus), suburban baths and a representation of the noria a whole one hundred years earlier than the oldest known iconographical image of this installation known to date, from Apamea from the mid 5th century AD. One may also observe certain parallels with the iconography of buildings from a later mosaic of Megalopsychia from Yakto in Antioch. The mosaic is exceptional in its expression and is part of a series of exceptionally rare historical mosaics.
As one of the most important works of ancient art, the mosaic is part of the Syrian national heritage and should be returned one day to the place where it belongs, that is, the archaeological museum in Apamea.
Summing up, one should note that many mosaic panels from the Syrian Apamea have been plundered by organized bands of professional thieves of ancient artifacts and works of art. These thieves are also propagating false information regarding stolen works of art, suggesting that they are forgeries. It is unfortunate that some restorers, not necessarily specialized in ancient art and Roman mosaics, originating from countries neighboring with Syria, are receptive to such disinformation. Information that objects of real antiquity are forgeries is meant to protect future dishonest buyers of such objects from the Interpol and local police.
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The mosaic panel was first identified in 2016 by permission of the Directorate General of Antiquities and Museums of Syria (DGAMS) and its director, Prof. Maamoun Abdulkarim. The co-authors would like to express their deep gratitude.
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The Diadochi shown on the mosaic from Apamea:
Antiochus I Soter (“the Savior”) – 324–261 BC; king 281–261 BC
Antipater – 397–319 BC; regent of the empire 323–319 BC
Apama – ? –299 BC; wife of Seleucus I Nikator
Kassander – 350–297 BC; regent of Macedonia 317–305 BC; king of Macedonia 305–297 BC
Seleucus I Nikator (“Victor”) 358–281 BC; king of the Seleucid empire 305–281 BC
Bibliography:
OLSZEWSKI M. T., SAAD H., 2016 (in press), « Origin of Apamea of Syria on the Roman mosaic wanted by Interpol. New Roman Source to Hellenistic and Roman History of Apamea », Archeologia (Warsaw), 66.
INTERPOL calls for vigilance on looting of ancient mosaics in Syria :
http://www.interpol.int/News-and-media/News/2012/N20120521
Fig. 1. Upper zone of the mosaic from Apamea. Representation of a cult offering made by Archippos before the diadochi Antipater and his son Kassander, and the Macedonian cavalry, occasioned by the founding of the Macedonian colony of Pella-on-the-Orontes. Anonymous photographer, image modified and sharpened by D. Zielińska.
Fig. 2. Central zone of the mosaic from Apamea. (Re)foundation of Pella/Apamea on the Orontes by Seleucus I Nikator and the donation of Apama for the development and fortification of the town. Other participants of the scene include Archippos, Antipater, Kassander and Antiochus I Soter. The representation of the town of Apamea shows its main buildings. In the bottom zone, the hinterland of the city of Apamea with a noria and baths. Anonymous photographer, image modified and sharpened by D. Zielińska.
Fig. 3. Macedonian cavalryman with his horses from the tomb of Agios Athanasios in Thessaloniki, dated to the end of the 4th century BC (after H. Brecoulaki, La peinture funéraire de Macédoine. Emplois et functions de la couleur, IVe-IIe siècle aavant J.-C., Athens-Paris 2006, pl. 96.2).
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