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Lund University—In the 4th century BC, an armada of boats attacked the island of Als off the coast of Denmark. Traveling in up to four boats, the unknown attackers were defeated, with the defenders sinking the weapons of their foes into the bog in one of the boats, most likely to give thanks for their victory.

“Where these sea raiders might have come from, and why they attacked the island of Als has long been a mystery,” says Mikael Fauvelle, archaeologist at Lund University.

The boat was discovered in the 1880s in the bog of Hjortspring Mose, excavated in the 1920s, and is now known as the Hjortspring boat. It is the only example of a prehistoric plank boat that has ever been found in Scandinavia. The finding is unique – since it was sunk in a bog as an offering, it was exceptionally well preserved. To this day, the Hjortspring boat has been on display at the National Museum of Denmark.

When the researchers unexpectedly located parts of the boat that had not been chemically preserved, they were able to study these using modern scientific methods.

“The boat was waterproofed with pine pitch, which was surprising. This suggests the boat was built somewhere with abundant pine forests,” says Mikael Fauvelle.

Several scholars had previously suggested that the boat and its crew came from the region around modern-day Hamburg in Germany. Instead, the researchers now believe they came from the Baltic Sea region.

“If the boat came from the pine forest-rich coastal regions of the Baltic Sea, it means that the warriors who attacked the island of Als chose to launch a maritime raid over hundreds of kilometers of open sea,” says Mikael Fauvelle.

So, exactly where did someone unknowingly leave their fingerprint in the tar, as a silent message to future generations? The best way to conclusively address the mystery of the boat’s origins would be through tree year ring counting which could match the planks on the boat to the area where the trees they came from were cut down. 

“We are also hoping to be able to extract ancient DNA from the caulking tar on the boat, which could give us more detailed information on the ancient people who used this boat,” concludes Mikael Fauvelle.

DETECTIVE WORK LED TO DISCOVERY

The latest findings* are the result of careful detective work by the researchers. 

The team wanted to find material from the boat that had not yet been subjected to conservation. This involved going through the archive at the National Museum and reading old correspondence, detailing when and where materials had been shipped between different storage areas and museums in Denmark. 

“When we located some of the boxes of materials, we were very excited to find that they contained samples from the original excavation that had not been studied in over 100 years,” says Mikael Fauvelle.

HOW THE RESEARCHERS EXAMINED THEIR FINDS

The team used a wide range of modern scientific methods to study the Hjortspring material. They were able to carbon date some of the lime bast cordage used on the boat, giving them the first absolute date from the original excavation material and confirming its pre-Roman Iron Age dating. 

They also used x-ray tomography to make high resolution scans of the caulking and cordage material found on the boat. This included making a digital 3D model of the fingerprint found in some of the caulking tar.

They used gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to study the caulking material and to see how it was produced. In addition, they worked with modern rope makers to create replicas of the ships cordage to study the rope-making process used in the boat’s construction. 

The research was carried out in collaboration with the research program Maritime Encounters at the University of Gothenburg.

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The Hjortspring boat as currently displayed at the National Museum of Denmark. Boel Bengtsson

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Photo of caulking fragment showing fingerprint on the left and high-resolution x-ray tomography scan of fingerprint region on the right. Erik Johansson, 3D model by Sahel Ganji.

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Cordage fragments from the Hjortspring boat. Mikael Fauvette

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Depiction of our experimental reconstruction of lime bast cordage and hitch knot. This reconstruction was made by Mikkel Hollmann and Olof Pipping using a spinning hook. Note that some sections are two ply while others are four ply. Mikael Fauvette

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AlUla, Saudi Arabia – The fascinating, ancient and vibrant story of Dadan, the former capital of the Kingdoms of Dadan and Lihyan, is revealed for global audiences to discover and explore in-depth in a new permanent exhibition titled ‘Illuminating Discoveries – Uncovering the layers of Dadan’s History’.

Displayed at the spectacular Dadan archaeological site in the ancient oasis city of AlUla, northwest Arabia, the permanent interpretive exhibition presents the diverse crafts, practices and evidence of ancient intercultural exchange, highlighting Dadan’s role as a major political and trading center on the Incense Road during the 1^st millennium BCE and earlier.

Presenting an exciting new chapter in the modern world’s knowledge of ancient Arabia and its storied history, ‘Illuminating Discoveries – Uncovering the layers of Dadan’s History’ features more than 100 artifacts painstakingly recovered from the ruins by international teams working in AlUla’s Dadan archaeological site and the mountaintop sanctuary of Umm Daraj in the last five years.

With the camel’s domestication opening vast new overland routes, the incense trade flourished, elevating Dadan into a thriving powerhouse of commerce and cross-cultural connection. Over time, the Incense Road grew into one of the most lucrative and influential trading networks of the ancient world, shaping economies and societies across thousands of kilometers.

Artifacts now on display depict the breadth of traders’ journeys placing AlUla at the center of a surprisingly connected and sophisticated global network. Highlighted objects include figurines with connections to Greece, a Roman or Byzantine bone hairpin and inscriptions in stone in a south Arabian language.

A dynasty of cultured and sophisticated civilizations interconnected with the ancient world, where farming began in Dadan around the 3^rd millennia BCE. Archaeologists have found evidence of handcraft from the 2^nd millennia BCE, a thousand years before the establishment of the Roman Empire.

Evidence of a deep tradition of craft as part of daily life shows the sophistication and human ingenuity of the people. New finds include examples of complex metal work, as well as evidence for the production of textiles made by weaving and spinning techniques. Once central to life in the city, these traditions and crafts are being revitalized today as part of the Royal Commission for AlUla’s (RCU) cultural and heritage regeneration of AlUla.

Including unique objects, the majority of which have never been displayed to the public before, the exhibition is spread across five comprehensive sections: Crafts and Daily Life in Ancient Dadan; Exchange and Trade; Ancient Beliefs and Rituals; Scripts in Stone; and Umm Daraj.

Included among the collection of ancient items is a copper-alloy spearhead dating from around 400–50 BCE. Surveys across the cliffs of Dadan revealed hundreds of inscriptions and striking rock art, including a battle scene showing four riders armed with long spears, while rock art from the adjoining desert valley of Wadi Al Naam depicts a horseman with a spear hunting an ostrich.

Dating to the late 4^th to 1^st century BCE, a terracotta head was discovered in an urban neighborhood in Dadan. Imported from the ancient Greek world, it may once have formed part of a Tanagra figurine – a style of small, finely modeled figures produced in central Greece and traded widely across the Mediterranean and even as far as Babylon. The head highlights how Mediterranean styles were absorbed into the cultural landscape and traded across northwest Arabia during the Lihyanite period.

Dating from 400–50 BCE, a striking statue, with the inlay still visible in one eye, uncovered in an ancient shrine at the foot of Dadan’s cliffs showcases the fine craftsmanship of highly symbolic items produced during the Lihyanite period, while another statuette marked by its long hair was also found in the same location. The standing figure, dressed in a belted garment, has only one surviving arm hanging straight at the side. Its eyes would have once been inlaid with bone.

A fragment of sandstone inscription from the 1^st millennium BCE wonderfully preserves part of a monumental Ancient South Arabian (Minaic) inscription. Carved in bold relief and likely originating from an ancient public or religious building, only two signs – w and d – survive, but together they likely refer to Wadd, the chief deity worshipped by the Minaean community at Dadan. The Minaeans, merchants from the south Arabian kingdom of Ma‘in, established a presence in Dadan as part of their long-distance trading networks, leaving behind inscriptions that record their cultural practices.

As an example of ancient language in its written form, the stone fragment shares a connection with the nearby ‘open air library’ at Jabal Ikmah. Inscribed on UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register, Jabal Ikmah is home to almost 300 inscriptions predominantly dated to when the Dadanites and Lihyanites ruled from Dadan.

Dr. Abdurahman Alsuhaibani, Vice President of Culture at RCU and Co-Director of the Dadan Project, said: “Dadan is a truly remarkable place that one could say was the world’s first truly connected center. An ancient capital, it was one of the most sophisticated and important cities of its time – a fascinating fact that continues to reveal itself through the incredible range and diversity of artifacts uncovered by teams of Saudi and international experts on the ground. This wonderful new, permanent exhibition offers visitors unique insights into the lives, beliefs and practices of the people of Dadan, how they ruled the region and how they interacted with other cultures.”

The exhibition was made possible by a collaboration between the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU), The French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and the French Agency for AlUla Development (AFALULA), who have led Saudi-French archaeological missions leading on the excavations in Dadan in recent years.

The 2025–26 season in AlUla launches one of the region’s most diverse heritage research efforts to date, with more than 100 archaeologists and specialists from leading Saudi and international institutions working across over six major projects. From new excavations at Hegra and Dadan to large-scale inscription and environmental studies, this is AlUla’s most ambitious programme yet—advancing knowledge, building Saudi capacity, and reinforcing the Kingdom’s position as a global leader in cultural heritage research.

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Above and below: Artifacts from Illuminating Discoveries — Uncovering the Layers of Dadan’s History. AlUla

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Dadan. AlUla

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The tombs of ancient Dadan. AlUla

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Visitors to AlUla who book a ticket to the Dadan and Jabal Ikmah tour will enjoy exclusive access to the ‘Illuminating Discoveries – Uncovering the layers of Dadan’s History’ as part of their experience.

For more information, visit experiencealula.com

For further information, please contact: RCU.Destinations@bursonglobal.com

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About AlUla:

Located 1,100 km from Riyadh, in North-West Saudi Arabia, AlUla is a place of extraordinary natural and human heritage. The vast area, covering 22,561km², includes a lush oasis valley, towering sandstone mountains and ancient cultural heritage sites dating back thousands of years to when the Lihyan and Nabataean kingdoms reigned.

The most well-known and recognised site in AlUla is Hegra, Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site. A 52-hectare ancient city, Hegra was the principal southern city of the Nabataean Kingdom and is comprised of 111 well-preserved tombs, many with elaborate facades cut out of the sandstone outcrops surrounding the walled urban settlement.

Current research also suggests Hegra was the most southern outpost of the Roman Empire after the Romans conquered the Nabataeans in 106 CE.

In addition to Hegra, AlUla is also home to ancient Dadan, the capital of the Kingdoms of Dadan and Lihyan, and considered to be one of the most developed 1st millennium BCE cities of the Arabian Peninsula, and Jabal Ikmah, an open-air library of hundreds of inscriptions in many different languages, which has been recently listed on the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register. Also AlUla Old Town Village, a labyrinth of around 900 mudbrick dwellings and buildings, developed from at least the 12th century, which has been selected as one of the World’s Best Tourism Villages in 2022 by the UNWTO.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology—Concrete was the foundation of the ancient Roman empire. It enabled Rome’s storied architectural revolution as well as the construction of buildings, bridges, and aqueducts, many of which are still used some 2,000 years after their creation.

In 2023, MIT Associate Professor Admir Masic and his collaborators published a paper describing the manufacturing process that gave Roman concrete its longevity: Lime fragments were mixed with volcanic ash and other dry ingredients before the addition of water. Once water is added to this dry mix, heat is produced. As the concrete sets, this “hot-mixing” process traps and preserves the highly reactive lime as small, white, gravel-like features. When cracks form in the concrete, the lime clasts redissolve and fill the cracks, giving the concrete self-healing properties.

There was only one problem: The process Masic’s team described was different from the one described by the famed ancient Roman architect Vitruvius. Vitruvius literally wrote the book on ancient architecture. His highly influential work, “De architectura,” written in the 1st century B.C.E., is the first known book on architectural theory. In it, Vitruvius says that Romans added water to lime to create a paste-like material before mixing it with other ingredients.

“Having a lot of respect for Vitruvius, it was difficult to suggest that his description may be inaccurate,” Masic says. “The writings of Vitruvius played a critical role in stimulating my interest in ancient Roman architecture, and the results from my research contradicted these important historical texts.”

Now, Masic and his collaborators have confirmed that hot-mixing was indeed used by the Romans, a conclusion he reached by studying a newly discovered ancient construction site in Pompeii that was exquisitely preserved by the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the year 79 C.E. They also characterized the volcanic ash material the Romans mixed with the lime, finding a surprisingly diverse array of reactive minerals that further added to the concrete’s ability to repair itself many years after these monumental structures were built.

“There is the historic importance of this material, and then there is the scientific and technological importance of understanding it,” Masic explains. “This material can heal itself over thousands of years, it is reactive, and it is highly dynamic. It has survived earthquakes and volcanoes. It has endured under the sea and survived degradation from the elements. We don’t want to completely copy Roman concrete today. We just want to translate a few sentences from this book of knowledge into our modern construction practices.”

The findings are described in a forthcoming paper in Nature Communications. Joining Masic on the paper are first authors Ellie Vaserman ’25 and Principal Research Scientist James Weaver, along with Associate Professor Kristin Bergmann, PhD candidate Claire Hayhow, and six other Italian collaborators.

Uncovering ancient secrets

Masic has spent close to a decade studying the chemical composition of the concrete that allowed Rome’s famous structures to endure for so much longer than their modern counterparts. His 2023 paper analyzed the material’s chemical composition to deduce how it was made.

That paper used samples from a city wall in Priverno in southwest Italy, which was conquered by the Romans in the 4th century B.C.E. But there was a question as to whether this wall was representative of other concrete structures built throughout the Roman empire.

The recent discovery by archaeologists of an active ancient construction site in Pompeii (complete with raw material piles and tools) therefore offered an unprecedented opportunity.

For the study, the researchers analyzed samples from these pre-mixed dry material piles, a wall that was in the process of being built, completed buttress and structural walls, and mortar repairs in an existing wall.

“We were blessed to be able to open this time capsule of a construction site and find piles of material ready to be used for the wall,” Masic says. “With this paper, we wanted to clearly define a technology and associate it with the Roman period in the year 79 C.E.”

The site offered the clearest evidence yet that the Romans used hot-mixing in concrete production. Not only did the concrete samples contain the lime clasts described in Masic’s previous paper, but the team also discovered intact quicklime fragments pre-mixed with other ingredients in a dry raw material pile, a critical first step in the preparation of hot-mixed concrete.

Bergman, an associate professor of earth and planetary sciences, helped develop tools for differentiating the materials at the site.

“Through these stable isotope studies, we could follow these critical carbonation reactions over time, allowing us to distinguish hot-mixed lime from the slaked lime originally described by Vitruvius,” Masic says. “These results revealed that the Romans prepared their binding material by taking calcined limestone (quicklime), grinding them to a certain size, mixing it dry with volcanic ash, and then eventually adding water to create a cementing matrix.”

The researchers also analyzed the volcanic ingredients in the cement, including a type of volcanic ash called pumice. They found that the pumice particles chemically reacted with the surrounding pore solution over time, creating new mineral deposits that further strengthened the concrete.

Rewriting history

Masic says the archaeologists listed as co-authors on the paper were indispensable to the study. When Masic first entered the Pompeii site, as he inspected the perfectly preserved work area, tears came to his eyes.

“I expected to see Roman workers walking between the piles with their tools,” Masic says. “It was so vivid, you felt like you were transported in time. So yes, I got emotional looking at a pile of dirt. The archaeologists made some jokes.”

Masic notes that calcium is a key component in both ancient and modern concretes, so understanding how it reacts over time holds lessons for understanding dynamic processes in modern cement as well. Towards these efforts, Masic has also started a company, DMAT, that uses lessons from ancient Roman concrete to create long-lasting modern concretes.

“This is relevant because Roman cement is durable, it heals itself, and it’s a dynamic system,” Masic says. “The way these pores in volcanic ingredients can be filled through recrystallization is a dream process we want to translate into our modern materials. We want materials that regenerate themselves.”

As for Vitruvius, Masic guesses that he may have been misinterpreted. He points out that Vitruvius also mentions latent heat during the cement mixing process, which could suggest hot-mixing after all.

The work was supported, in part, by the MIT Research Support Committee (RSC) and the MIT Concrete Sustainability Hub.

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An ancient Pompeii wall at a newly excavated site, where Associate Professor Admir Masic applied compositional analysis (overlayed to right) to understand how ancient Romans made concrete that has endured for thousands of years. Archaeological Park of Pompeii

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Article Source: Massachusetts Institute of Technology news release.

*“An unfinished Pompeian construction site reveals ancient Roman building technology,” Nature Communications, 10.1038/s41467-025-66634-7  

University of Wollongong—An international team of scientists, including the University of Wollongong (UOW), has found compelling evidence that a changing climate played a role in the extinction of the early human species Homo floresiensis, also known as ‘hobbits’. Their research, published in Communications Earth & Environment, reveals the hobbits abandoned Liang Bua – a cave they had occupied for around 140,000 years – during a drought that lasted for thousands of years.

The team combined chemical records from cave stalagmites with isotopic data from fossil teeth from a pygmy elephant species (Stegodon florensis insularis) that hobbits hunted. The results reveal an extensive drying trend beginning around 76,000 years ago, culminating in severe drought between 61,000 and 55,000 years ago, around the time the hobbits disappeared. Prolonged drought and competition for resources may have driven their departure from Liang Bua and, ultimately, their extinction.

The discovery highlights how environmental conditions can reshape the course of species survival, and how changing rainfall influenced the fate of our close relatives.

“The ecosystem around Liang Bua became dramatically drier around the time Homo floresiensis vanished,” said UOW Honorary Professor Dr Mike Gagan, the lead author of the study. “Summer rainfall fell and river-beds became seasonally dry, placing stress on both hobbits and their prey.”

The discovery builds on decades of groundbreaking UOW research into Homo floresiensis, first discovered in 2003 in Liang Bua on the Indonesian island of Flores. Dubbed the hobbit due to its tiny stature, Homo floresiensis challenged prevailing theories of human evolution. It disappears from the fossil record around 50,000 years ago, but its fate has remained an enigma.

The scientists used stalagmites, a natural archive of rainfall, to reconstruct past climate and rainfall. Analysis of oxygen-isotopes in fossil tooth enamel showed the pygmy elephants relied on river water, which became increasingly scarce. The pygmy elephant population fell steeply around 61,000 years ago, meaning that an important food source for the hobbits was disappearing.

“Surface freshwater, Stegodon and Homo floresiensis all decline at the same time, showing the compounding effects of ecological stress,” UOW Honorary Fellow Dr Gert van den Berg said. “Competition for dwindling water and food probably forced the hobbits to abandon Liang Bua.”

While Homo floresiensis fossils pre-date the earliest evidence of modern humans on Flores, Homo sapiens were traversing the Indonesian archipelago around the time the hobbits disappeared.

“It’s possible that as the hobbits moved in search of water and prey, they encountered modern humans,” Dr Gagan said. “In that sense, climate change may have set the stage for their final disappearance.”

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The research team on site in Flores, Indonesia. Garry K Smith

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Fossil jaw-bone (with adult teeth) from Stegodon florensis insularis at Liang Bua. Mika R Puspaningrum

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Wae Racang valley, where Homo floresiensis and Stegodon once roamed.

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Article Source: University of Wollongong news release.

About the research

‘Onset of summer aridification and the decline of Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua 61,000 years ago’ by Michael K. Gagan, Linda K. Ayliffe, Mika R. Puspaningrum, Gerrit van den Bergh, Nick Scroxton, Wahyoe S .Hantoro, Heather Scott-Gagan, Scott A. Condie, R. Lawrence Edwards, HaiCheng, Jian-xin Zhao, JohnC. Hellstrom, Alena K. Kimbrough, Matthew J. Gagan, Bambang W. Suwargadi, Joan A. Cowley, Bronwyn C. Dixon, Garry K. Smith, Neil Anderson, Henri Wong and Hamdi Rifai, was published in Communications Earth & Environment: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02961-3

University of Copenhagen—The Cyclades are an island group in the Aegean Sea, southeast of mainland Greece. Made up of more than 200 islands, the Cyclades attract millions of tourists each year for holidays on islands like Mykonos and Santorini. But recent studies have revealed that before the luxury villas took over the islands, the Cyclades have been home to humans in not only ancient Greece, but in pre-historic times as well.

As part of several international teams, archaeologist Evan Levine from the University of Copenhagen is using groundbreaking technological methods such as LIDAR and magnetometry to shed new light on the archaeology of the Cycladic islands*.

The Cycladic islands are already well-known for archaeological sites such as the sanctuary of Apollo on Delos and Akrotiri, a Bronze Age city destroyed by a volcanic eruption more than 3,000 years ago. But Evan Levine, a PhD Fellow in archaeology at the University of Copenhagen, and colleagues from Greece and the United States have just completed The Small Cycladic Islands Project, which studied 87 uninhabited islands, many of them for the first time.

“Our questions were simple. Were these now-uninhabited islands – some of which are big, some of which are small, some of which are rugged, some of which are very beautiful – used by people at any point in the past? If so, how were they used, and how does that change our perspective of these kinds of archipelago environments where big islands, small islands, coastlines, and the sea itself are all working together to dictate how people live?” says Evan Levine.

Tourism is an important factor in the Greek economy, but the country also has many unknown archaeological sites still buried in the ground, yet to be unearthed. By mapping out the areas of particular archaeological interest, Evan Levine and his colleagues are helping guide future development in the region, encouraging more sustainable tourism and protecting Greece’s cultural heritage.  Their collaboration with the Greek Ministry of Culture has even resulted in the entire island of Polyaigos – the largest uninhabited Aegean island – being designated a protected archaeological site.

Lasers and magnetic waves

When you think of archaeological fieldwork, you might imagine dig sites and excavations. Careful as archaeologists may be, digging disturbs the area of interest. Evan Levine and his colleagues have been using modern archaeological techniques that are less intrusive and have not been used extensively in The Cyclades previously.

One of these methods is magnetometry  – the subject of a recent publication in the Journal of Archaeological Science.

“Magnetometry is a technique that had never been used on these islands, so we weren’t sure if it would be effective. We use something called a gradiometer to record the ground’s magnetic signature as you walk across it. Different objects in the ground present different magnetic properties, which we use to see what’s under the ground. Magnetometry helps us find everything from stone walls and buildings to interesting events like ancient lightning strikes and human and natural activity that affect soil magnetics,” says Evan Levine.

“We’re trying to understand how ancient sites may have looked without having to completely excavate everything. Because archaeology is a destructive science, our goal is to document as much as possible to make sure that we’re digging in the right place and asking the right questions when we do excavate.” says Evan Levine.

Alongside magnetometry which helps document individual sites, Evan and his colleagues are using LIDAR to map out entire islands from the air.

In short, LIDAR works by shooting pulsating lasers from an airplane or drone. The laser pulses penetrate through vegetation and provide a clear image of the surface topography below. It has been used previously to discover lost cities in Mesoamerica and Southeast Asia, but is a relatively new method in Greece.

“There are several benefits of using these methods. They are non-invasive and can produce some amazing results. In the world of limited funding for research in the humanities, they allow you to be much more targeted than previously possible, using destructive methods like excavation much more sparingly to answer particular questions,” says Evan Levine.

LIDAR mapping of the island of Naxos is the topic of a recent article in Antiquity and will feature in the December edition of The Journal of Greek Archaeology*.

Big histories of little islands 

When using the methods that Evan Levine and his colleagues are applying, you find many things from several very different time periods all at once. While most archaeologists study particular periods, like Bronze Age or Classical Era, Evan Levine is using these tools to tell a new history of the Cyclades that spans thousands of years.

“We found everything from Bronze Age cities to Medieval castles and churches, and we may even have evidence of palaeolithic activity on these islands,” says Evan Levine. “The responsible thing to do is to document all of it – from traces of exceptionally early activity to more recent archaeology like 19^th century shepherd’s huts. It’s all part of the story of these places, and the work I have been doing allows us to think about how the earlier activity influences and interacts with the later activities.”

Many of their prehistoric findings are from 3000 to 1000 , periods when the region was home to the Cycladic culture, Minoans from Crete, and Mycenaeans from mainland Greece. But, surprisingly, Evan and his colleagues have also found artifacts that points to earlier human presence on the Cyclades.

“Some of our most exciting data focuses on the earliest colonization of the Cyclades during the Neolithic Period,” says Evan Levine. “These tools are allowing us to rethink how the earliest communities on these islands lived and interacted with the land and the sea around them. We definitely did not expect to find so much early material on such small islands, which clearly attracted humans for various reasons much earlier and in greater numbers than we previously thought,” Evan Levine says.

Methods like LIDAR, ground penetrating radar and magnetometry played a significant role in these findings according to the UCPH archaeologist.

“In some instances our methods have completely led to the discovery of the items we have found. In other instances, these tools have allowed us to do more than we otherwise would have, because they have made our search more targeted which allows us to document our findings more carefully,” he explains.

Future plans

Evan Levine plans to continue working with these methods and even more modern technologies that are new to the field of archaeology.

“My immediate plans are to work more closely with machine learning and LIDAR, which has led to some amazing results in other parts of the world. I’m lucky to be a part of all these ongoing projects where we can test new methods, and I hope that our findings can help archaeologists who are working in other areas as well,” he says.

“The happy biproduct of this is continued discovery about the diverse communities who have made what is, in my opinion one of the most beautiful and interesting parts of the world, their home for many, many thousands of years. And I’m hoping that our work will help preserve these islands by highlighting how much we have left to learn about them,” he says.

And this new research isn’t just about Greece, Evan Levine is working to bring his experiences using new archaeological technologies and methods back to Denmark. In 2024, he taught a course to undergraduate and master’s students at the University of Copenhagen about using cutting-edge digital methods to study the ancient world.

“Whether you’re studying archaeology like me or historical documents, these same tools are unlocking new ways to think about our collective past,” said Evan Levine.

“Tools like Generative AI and computational modeling are becoming key skills for historians and archaeologists, and my students at the university really took what I had to teach them and ran with it, producing some really exciting research.”

Evan Levine and his colleagues have published their work in the journals Antiquity and the Journal of Archaeological Science, and more work referenced here will be published this December in Hesperia and the Journal of Greek Archaeology:

An interdisciplinary workflow for the comprehensive study of ancient quarried landscapes | Antiquity | Cambridge Core

The application of geophysical prospection to understand ancient Greek rural island landscapes: Magnetometry survey at Palaiopyrgos, Paros (Cyclades) – ScienceDirect

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The small island of Palatia off Naxos has been investigated by the researchers. Photo: The Small Cycladic Islands Project

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Evan Levine is part of several international teams of researchers, documenting archaeological sites in the Cyclades. Photo: The Small Cycladic Islands Project

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LIDAR is a pulsating laser system, which can be used to map out large areas from a drone or airplane. Photo: The Small Cycladic Islands Project

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Article Source: University of Copenhagen news release.

*The application of geophysical prospection to understand ancient Greek rural island landscapes: Magnetometry survey at Palaiopyrgos, Paros (Cyclades), Journal of Archaeological Science, 8-Sep-2025. 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105373 

Preserving ancient heritage sites is one of humanity’s most essential responsibilities, allowing generations to understand history, culture, technology, and the evolution of societies. Archaeology uncovers the past, but infrastructure makes it possible to conserve, protect, and display these discoveries safely. As tourism increases and environmental conditions become harsher, the role of infrastructure—roads, drainage, stabilization supports, pathways, shelters, and protective coatings—becomes more vital than ever.

This article explores how infrastructure supports archaeological conservation, why it matters, challenges involved, and how modern construction principles contribute to safeguarding ancient heritage without harming authenticity.

Understanding Why Infrastructure Matters in Archaeology

Most archaeological sites were not built for long-term exposure. Ancient monuments, structures, and artifacts were often buried, sheltered, or undergoing natural deterioration before being excavated. Once exposed, they face:

• Rain, wind, and erosion
• Human tourism pressure
• Vandalism and theft
• Soil instability
• Thermal differences
• Water infiltration
• Microbial and chemical decay

Infrastructure provides an engineered solution to these threats. It helps archaeologists and conservation experts control visitor impact, stabilize ruins, manage stormwater, and protect surfaces from decay.

In simple terms, archaeology reveals the past; infrastructure ensures it survives the future.

Infrastructure Increases Accessibility Without Compromising Authenticity

Heritage sites attract researchers, educational institutions, tourism departments, and millions of curious visitors annually. While accessibility promotes cultural awareness, unrestricted access can cause irreversible damage.

This is where carefully designed infrastructure becomes essential:

• Clear walking pathways reduce trampling on fragile layers
• Controlled visitor flow prevents chaos
• Proper signage keeps people away from unstable areas
• Viewing platforms reduce direct contact with walls, floors, and carvings

Good infrastructure doesn’t change the site; it protects it while allowing people to experience it.

Roads, Pathways, and Visitor Routes Protect Fragile Surfaces

Improper foot traffic is one of the biggest causes of damage to ruins. For instance:

• Ancient mosaics may crack
• Mudbrick structures may crumble
• Uneven terrain may erode

Constructing paved walkways and retaining walls helps maintain controlled movement.

These pathways are often made from durable materials that can withstand high traffic—concrete, stone slabs, or treated surfaces. When modern sealants or protective paving is required to maintain structural longevity, services like Executive Asphalt paving and sealcoating help preserve outdoor pathways and prevent gradual erosion from weathering.

By designing sturdy walkways instead of letting people walk directly on ancient surfaces, archaeologists protect original soil profiles and delicate features below.

Drainage Systems and Moisture Control

Water is one of archaeology’s worst enemies. Ancient structures deteriorate fast when exposed to:

• Rainwater stagnation
• Ground seepage
• Flooding
• Freeze–thaw cycles
• Salts carried by water

Modern drainage infrastructure such as trenches, underground pipes, gutters, and run-off channels prevent water accumulation. At excavated sites, water management is crucial to preventing chemical and physical erosion.

Examples:

• In Mesopotamian mudbrick ruins, drainage prevents walls from dissolving
• In Greek and Roman sites, runoff channels stop mosaic floors from cracking
• In desert regions like Egypt, drainage prevents salt crystals from forming on decorated surfaces

Infrastructure here acts as a protective system, not as a modification of heritage.

Shelters, Roofs, and Climate Control Structures

Some ruins require physical shielding from environmental stress. Lightweight roofing and shelters are built to protect artifacts such as:

• Sculptures and murals
• Wooden beams
• Earthen structures
• Frescoes
• Ancient manuscripts

These protective structures are usually:

• Breathable
• Stable
• Lightweight
• Removable (non-invasive)
• UV-resistant

For delicate discoveries that cannot be removed from their original position, temporary roofing becomes indispensable. This allows the site to be studied and documented while being shielded from wind, direct sunlight, extreme temperatures, and rainfall.

Soil Stabilization and Foundation Support

Many ancient structures were built on soils that were stable long ago but no longer are, due to:

• Erosion
• Climate change
• Human activity nearby
• Earthquakes
• Vegetation root systems

Infrastructure for foundation stabilization includes:

• Geotextile layers
• Reinforcement grids
• Retaining walls
• Controlled drainage
• Soil compaction

These solutions allow archaeologists to preserve ruins in situ (in their original place) instead of having to relocate them.

Balancing Modern Construction and Cultural Authenticity

Archaeological ethics require that any infrastructure placed around heritage sites must:

• Be reversible (removable without damage)
• Be non-intrusive
• Respect historical context
• Be visually unobtrusive
• Avoid altering artifacts or sediments

Therefore, archaeologists work with engineers, architects, material scientists, and conservationists to design structures that complement heritage rather than overshadow it.

Lighting, Security, and Surveillance: Protecting Sites from Human Threats

Human-caused damage is often as harmful as natural decay. Theft, vandalism, and accidental contact destroy heritage permanently. Properly installed infrastructure helps:

• LED lighting for safe night visits
• CCTV to monitor site activity
• Laser perimeter alarms to prevent intrusion
• Access control gates

In museums where archaeological artifacts are displayed, infrastructure extends to:

• Temperature-regulated cases
• Controlled humidity systems
• Fire-suppression systems
• Secure flooring and panel supports

These measures minimize deterioration while maximizing visibility and safety.

Sustainable Infrastructure: Eco-Friendly Protection

Modern conservation emphasizes sustainability. Infrastructure today considers:

• Green roofing systems
• Reusing excavation backfill soil
• Solar-powered lighting
• Water recycling for site cleaning
• Using stabilized soil instead of concrete in sensitive zones
• Prefabricated reversible shelters

Sustainable infrastructure reduces environmental impact and protects heritage sites without introducing pollutants.

How Infrastructure Helps Archaeologists Conduct Research

Infrastructure isn’t only for tourism and preservation; it also supports research activities.

It makes excavation safer and more efficient through:

• Stabilized excavation trenches
• Drainage around trenches
• Scaffolding around large ruins
• Safe transport routes for artifacts
• Laboratory container units on-site

Infrastructure may not be visible to tourists, but it forms the backbone of every excavation.

Case Examples Across Cultures

Roman Civilizations
Ancient amphitheaters and streets use stone paving. Modern protective coatings, controlled walkways, and signage help prevent cracking due to foot pressure.

Egyptian Temples and Tombs
Air management systems reduce salt crystallization in underground chambers.

Mayan Ruins in Central America
Raised platforms prevent visitors from walking directly on fragile stone carvings and hieroglyphs.

Medieval European Sites
Moisture barriers and drainage systems prevent water from damaging frescoes and basement chambers.

These examples show that infrastructure is not a modern invention—it is a necessity for preserving civilization’s legacy.

Infrastructure as a Long-Term Investment in Cultural Preservation

Building roads, walkways, protective shelters, drainage systems, and monitoring equipment requires financial investment. However, the return on this investment is immeasurable:

• Tourism revenue for local communities
• Educational value for younger generations
• Historical identity for nations
• Awareness of ancient achievements
• Academical research progress

When infrastructure protects heritage, it protects knowledge.

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Ancient heritage sites embody humanity’s journey through time—our technology, art, beliefs, trade, and social evolution. Infrastructure plays a crucial role in ensuring these remnants of the past survive environmental, physical, and human threats. From drainage systems to visitor pathways, shelters to soil stabilization, and modern sealing techniques to sustainable engineering, infrastructure supports archaeology’s mission: preserve the past, for the future.

When the world invests in proper, reversible, and sensitive infrastructure, ancient sites become accessible and educational while remaining safeguarded. In essence, infrastructure is not a threat to heritage; it is a guardian.

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Cover Image, Top Left: Mirandavandorst, Pixabay

Calgary’s thriving landscape of modern highway systems and bustling road networks is a reflection of deep historical roots. What we see today—busy streets, long-distance routes leading to the Rockies, and highways shaping urban expansion—originated from trails used centuries ago. Archaeology around Calgary helps piece together the evolution of travel, landscape use, and settlement in this region. To understand the present, we first travel back to the distant past.

Ancient Trails and Early Movements Across the Plains

Long before Calgary was a city, the plains served as a home and travel corridor for Indigenous peoples. These early communities were skilled navigators of the region and had established trails that connected hunting grounds, freshwater sources, and trade areas.

Archaeologists have uncovered countless pieces of evidence showing how Indigenous peoples traveled and lived here, including:

• Stone tools (scrapers, spearheads, knives)
• Remains of campsites and fire pits
• Buffalo jump structures used for coordinated hunting
• Burial sites and ceremonial grounds

These findings demonstrate that mobility was essential to survival, food access, and cultural activity. The landscape itself provided direction—rivers, ridges, and open plains became natural highways.

These trails weren’t random paths but strategically developed routes based on knowledge passed down through generations. Many of the earliest settlement trails that skirted around rivers and open fields later became mapped transportation corridors.

The Archaeology of Travel and Trade

Evidence suggests that early Indigenous groups had trade networks stretching hundreds of kilometers. Archaeologists discovered stone materials in Calgary originating from regions far away, showing that people traveled considerable distances along well-established transport routes.

As populations moved seasonally, trails expanded. Some paths connected the foothills of the Rocky Mountains to the prairies and even beyond into present-day Saskatchewan and Montana.

What’s fascinating is that modern archaeologists have successfully mapped many of these routes using:

• Soil and material analysis
• Ancient hearth remnants
• Carbon dating
• Satellite soil imaging
• Indigenous oral history

It is through this synergy of science and culture that we trace how today’s transportation network came to be. 

The Arrival of Settlers and the Transformation of Trails

In the 1800s, European traders, explorers, and settlers began to appear in the Calgary area. Their arrival marked a crucial turning point in how the land was used.

Indigenous routes quickly became:

• Wagon roads
• Horse trails
• Supply routes
• Military patrol paths

Settlement required access to trading posts, forts, and water. As the population grew, trails broadened. Dirt paths were widened to allow wagons to pass, and eventually they connected emerging towns.

Many of Calgary’s early trading and settlement routes overlapped with paths Indigenous peoples had used for centuries. Archaeologists studying early settler remains and artifacts frequently find:

• Wagon wheel ruts
• Historic trail markers
• Remnants of blacksmith stations
• Early bridges and river crossing structures

These discoveries help historians visualize how mobility evolved and how early infrastructure took shape.

Railroads, Urbanization, and the Birth of Road Systems

By the late 19th century, the Canadian Pacific Railway introduced a new era of transportation. The movement of goods and people dramatically accelerated, creating demand for structured roads linking towns and agricultural areas.

The shift from trails to road networks took place in three phases:

1. Rail-Based Growth:
   Rail stations became starting points for developing rough regional roads.
2. Agricultural Expansion:
   Farms required reliable access to larger towns, reinforcing permanent road-building.
3. Urban Development:
   As Calgary grew, trails became mapped streets, and the earliest downtown grid took form.

Archaeologists use maps, soil records, and old photographs to analyze how early transportation corridors shaped the city’s layout. Many of Calgary’s present highways, like the Trans-Canada Highway corridor, originated from these early structured routes tied to economic growth.

Modern Highways Reflect Ancient Mobility Patterns

Today, Calgary is one of Alberta’s major transportation hubs connecting:

• The Rocky Mountains
• Southern Alberta
• Northern and Central Prairies
• Inter-provincial highway networks

But what most travelers don’t realize is that many of the routes they follow are layered over centuries of human movement.

Archaeological surveys along road expansions often uncover artifacts that tell a deeper story. When crews dig foundations for bridges, repave highways, or widen interchanges, they occasionally find:

• Flint tools
• Bone fragments
• Ceremonial objects
• Hearth and camp remains

These discoveries are documented, preserved, and studied, offering insights into how people traveled across the region thousands of years before paved roads existed.

Vehicles and Calgary’s Archaeological Landscape

As modern vehicles speed along the highway systems that evolved from ancient trails, they create indirect connections to Calgary’s archaeological past. Roads today allow researchers, tourists, educators, and history enthusiasts to access culturally significant locations.

Driving the region’s highways can take you to:

• Fish Creek Provincial Park archaeological sites
• Nose Hill Park Indigenous camp remnants
• Interpretive centers displaying excavated artifacts
• Historic trade route locations west of the city

The ability to explore these sites by vehicle gives people direct access to history.

And because vehicle travel in Calgary often involves rugged terrain, outdoor conditions, and dusty routes, travelers rely on various services to keep their vehicles road-ready. Drivers often use auto detailers to maintain their vehicles while moving from archaeological parks to wilderness routes, making exploration easier and more comfortable. 

Preservation, Respect, and Continued Exploration

Archaeology in and around Calgary is not just about discovery — it is about preserving Indigenous history, respecting ancestral knowledge, and documenting how human movement shaped land use.

Archaeologists work closely with Indigenous communities today because oral history adds context that scientific data alone cannot provide. This respectful collaboration helps ensure that every piece of Calgary’s archaeological story is told accurately and with cultural depth.

As the city expands and road development continues, archaeologists are always present, studying the layers beneath modern life. Roads may bring convenience, but careful excavation reminds us that they are built atop millennia of travel, knowledge, and memory.

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Calgary’s roadways and highways are more than infrastructure—they are historical pathways shaped by the footsteps of Indigenous travelers, trade routes of settlers, and transportation advances of later generations. Archaeological discoveries help us trace this evolution and recognize that today’s movement across the region reflects ancient mobility patterns.

From footpaths to wagon tracks, and eventually to paved highways filled with modern vehicles, Calgary’s transportation story is deeply rooted in archaeology. Understanding this connection allows travelers, researchers, and residents to appreciate that beneath every modern roadway lies the memory of journeys taken long before us.

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Cover Image, Top Left: Pet_orient, Pixabay

University of Leicester—The team behind what has been described as ‘one of the most significant mosaics discovered in the UK’ have revealed that it depicts an alternative ‘long-lost’ telling of the Trojan War.

New research* from the University of Leicester has conclusively determined why the famous Ketton mosaic in Rutland – one of the most remarkable Roman discoveries in Britain for a century – cannot depict scenes from Homer’s Iliad as was initially believed. Instead, it draws on an alternative version of the Trojan War story first popularized by the Greek playwright Aeschylus that has since been lost to history.

The mosaic’s images combine artistic patterns and designs that had already been circulating for hundreds of years across the ancient Mediterranean, suggesting that craftsmen in Roman Britain were more closely connected to the wider classical world than has been assumed.

The Ketton mosaic was discovered in 2020 during the COVID-19 lockdown by local resident Jim Irvine, leading to a major excavation by University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS), with funding from Historic England. The mosaic and surrounding villa complex have since been designated a Scheduled Monument in recognition of their exceptional national importance. Historic England and ULAS undertook collaborative excavations at the site in 2021 and 2022 and are working together to publish the results of those investigations.

The mosaic depicts the Greek hero Achilles and the Trojan prince Hector in three dramatic scenes – their duel, the dragging of Hector’s body, and its eventual ransom by King Priam, where Hector’s body is literally weighed for gold.

The Trojan War, mostly famously portrayed in Homer’s epic poem, the Iliad, was a mythological ten-year campaign by Greek forces against the city of Troy, ruled by King Priam, to reclaim the legendary beauty, Helen of Sparta.

New analysis has shown that the mosaic is not based on Homer’s Iliad, as first believed, but instead echoes a lesser-known tragedy, Phrygians, by the Athenian playwright Aeschylus. There are several retellings of the Trojan War that the Romans would have been familiar with, but the owner of the Ketton villa would have enjoyed the cachet of displaying one of the more niche versions.

The research also reveals that the mosaic’s design cleverly combines artistic patterns long used by craftspeople across the ancient Mediterranean.

Dr Jane Masséglia, lead author of this new research and Associate Professor in Ancient History at the University of Leicester, said: “In the Ketton Mosaic, not only have we got scenes telling the Aeschylus version of the story, but the top panel is actually based on a design used on a Greek pot that dates from the time of Aeschylus, 800 years before the mosaic was laid. Once I’d noticed the use of standard patterns in one panel, I found other parts of the mosaic were based on designs that we can see in much older silverware, coins and pottery, from Greece, Turkey, and Gaul.

“Romano-British craftspeople weren’t isolated from the rest of the ancient world, but were part of this wider network of trades passing their pattern catalogues down the generations. At Ketton, we’ve got Roman British craftsmanship but a Mediterranean heritage of design.”

Jim Irvine, who discovered the Ketton mosaic on his family farm in 2020, said: “Jane’s detailed research into the Rutland mosaic imagery reveals a level of cultural integration across the Roman world that we’re only just beginning to appreciate. It’s a fascinating and important development that suggests Roman Britain may have been far more cosmopolitan than we often imagine. The new paper is a suspenseful and thrilling narrative in its own right which deserves recognition.”

Rachel Cubitt, Post-Excavation Coordinator at Historic England, said: “Working in collaboration with the University of Leicester brings an added dimension to investigations at the Ketton villa site. This fascinating new research offers a more nuanced picture of the interests and influences of those who may have lived there, and of people living across Roman Britain at this time.”

Hella Eckhardt, Professor of Roman Archaeology at the University of Reading, who was not involved in the study, said: “This is an exciting piece of research, untangling the ways in which the stories of the Greek heroes Achilles and Hector were transmitted not just through texts but through a repertoire of images created by artists working in all sorts of materials, from pottery and silverware to paintings and mosaics.”

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Section of Panel 1 of the Ketton Mosaic shows Hector, prince of Troy, in his chariot. (©ULAS). ©ULAS

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Panel 2 of the Ketton Mosaic shows Achilles dragging the body of Hector behind his chariot, while Hector’s father Priam begs him for mercy. (©ULAS). ©ULAS

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Panel 3 of the Ketton Mosaic shows Priam, king of Troy, loading a set of scales with gold vessels, to match the weight of his son, Hector. This version of the story is based on the lost play, Phrygians by Aeschylus. Jen Browning from University of Leicester Archaeological Services was able to reconstuct the burnt section by tracing the outline of the tiles. (©ULAS). ©ULAS

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A second-century Roman coin from Ilium in Turkey, labelled ‘Hector’, is an earlier example of the same design. (RPC 4.2.120 @ RPC online). RPC 4.2.120 @ RPC online

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A first-century silver jug from Roman Gaul had already used same design. On the left, Achilles is sitting by his shield, surrounded by his guards. In the middle is Hector’s body in a huge set of scales, centred around a human face. At the right, king Priam in his distinctive hat and robe loads the scales with gold vessels, while his bodyguards look on. (Nineteenth-century line drawing of Berthouville Treasure, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France). Nineteenth-century line drawing of Berthouville Treasure, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France

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A Greek vase from ancient Athens uses the same design 800 years before the Ketton mosaic: the waving figure, shield, chariot group, running figure with arms out and even the snake curled beneath the horses all come from the same schematic. (Boston 63.473 © MFA Boston). Boston 63.473 © MFA Boston

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Article Source: University of Leicester news release.

University of Johannesburg—In one of the largest African hunter-gatherer ancient-DNA studies to date, population geneticists from Uppsala University in Sweden, and a cognitive archaeologist from the University of Johannesburg, South Africa, analysed the DNA of 28 people who lived in southern Africa between 1200 and just a few hundred years ago. It contributes further evidence that southern African hunter-gatherers were some of the earliest human groups with a unique Homo sapiens genetic ancestry tracing back to about 300 000 years ago.

This could be done by peering behind the veil of recent migrations, providing a direct window into the region’s population history before large-scale movements that reshaped the continent’s genetic landscape.

Some sapiens-specific adaptations from southern Africa

They found 490 modern human or Homo sapiens specific genetic variants in the ancient southern African hunter-gatherers. Amongst these, immune-system related genes and genes related to kidney function were prevalent.

“When we examine all human genetic variation and look for evolutionary changes on the Homo sapiens lineage, we surprisingly find adaptations of kidney-functions as one of the most dramatic changes. This adaptation may be related to human’s specific water-retention and body-cooling system, which give us special endurance”, says population geneticist Mattias Jakobsson.

Three variants – not specific to all humans, but to the ancient southern Africans – were also located in genes associated with UV-light protection, skin-diseases, and/or skin-pigmentation. Different from the rainforests of central Africa, southern African’s more open ecologies with little natural shade, likely made it important for human foragers to develop UV-light protection genetically.

Most genes have many different functions, and akin to immunity and UV-light protection traits, some behavioural and cognitive traits are also largely heritable. It is therefore noteworthy that more than 40% of the Homo sapiens-specific genetic variants found in the ancient southern African hunter-gatherers are also associated with neurons for brain growth and cognitive traits, or the way that human brains process information today.

Out of southern Africa

Southern Africa may have been an ecological refuge for humans since a cold phase almost 200 000 years ago. Here hunter-gatherers thrived, adapting to a diverse landscape rich in plant and animal resources.

It seems that these southern hunter-gatherers did not mix again with other Africans until after 1400 years ago. By that time, the DNA from eastern African pastoralists, and western African farmers became apparent in southern African populations.

The results from this new study differ from previous linguistic, archaeological, and some early genetic studies, that saw contemporary southern African Khoe and San as the descendants of a once-widespread population that extended across much of southern, eastern, and northeastern Africa.

Instead, it shows that some genetic adaptations for becoming human in Africa were unique to southern African hunter-gatherers who lived in a relatively large, stable population for many millennia south of the Limpopo River.

After about 100-70 000 years ago, small groups of southern African hunter-gatherers may have wandered northwards, carrying several of their genetic signatures and perhaps also techno-behaviours with them.

For Stone Age and cognitive archaeologist from the University of Johannesburg, Marlize Lombard, “this is a meaningful outcome, suggesting that the complex thinking and techno-behaviours such as making compound adhesives or bowhunting, observed in the southern African archaeological record from about 100 000 years ago originated locally, probably trickling northward with the genes of local hunter-gatherers from about 70 000 years ago”.

Are the descendants of ancient hunter-gatherers still among us?

From the Limpopo Province in the north to the south coast of the Western Cape, and from Ballito Bay in KwaZulu-Natal to Augrabies in the Northern Cape, these ancient people almost all shared genetic markers (such as the mitochondrial L0d haplogroup) that are inherited from a single maternal ancestor.

These markers are still found in sub-Saharan Africa, mostly in San or Bushman people such as the Ju/’hoan in Namibia and Botswana, and the Karretjie Mense of South Africa. To a lesser extent the markers are also present in the Coloured population of South Africa, as well as in some Afrikaans speaking south Africans of European descent (mostly French and Dutch), who started to live in the Cape during the 17^th century.

Many of the people currently living in South Africa are therefore the descendants of the original hunter-gatherer population to a greater or lesser degree.

Early population history

What excites co-author, Carina Schlebush, most: “is that these genomes provide an unadmixed view of early southern African population history. With increasing numbers of high-coverage ancient genomes, we are now approaching true population-level insights. This gives us a much clearer foundation for understanding how modern humans evolved across Africa”. 

Researchers do not yet understand everything that contributed to becoming human in southern Africa, or elsewhere.

The genomes of ancient southern African hunter-gatherers as one of the earliest Homo sapiens groups to split from a common ancestor, however, has a lot to offer. It shows, amongst other things, that genetic variation may still be hidden in other ancient African forager groups, as well as indigenous peoples from elsewhere on the globe for whom there are little available genetic data. Such data is important for advancing our understanding of human evolution.

For lead-author Mattias Jakobsson: “These ancient genomes tell us that southern Africa played a key role in the human journey, perhaps ‘the’ key role”.

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Funding

This project was funded by grants from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg foundation (to Mattias Jakobsson and to Carina Schlebush), the Swedish Research council (grant 2022-04642 to Mattias Jakobsson, grant 2023-02944 to Carina Schlebush) and South African National Research Foundation (African Origins Platform grant 98815 to Marlize Lombard).

Acknowledgements

Sequencing was performed at the SciLifeLab SNP&SEQ Technology Platform in Uppsala and the computations and data handling were enabled by resources provided by the National Academic Infrastructure for Supercomputing in Sweden (NAISS) at UPPMAX.

Sampling permits were obtained from the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA). We thank the staff at Bloemfontein Museum, the Florisbad Research Station and the School of Anatomical Sciences and Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand for facilitating work with the collections; the members of the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) and the South African San Council for their support and facilitating fieldwork for the collections that involved modern-day Khoe-San groups published previously, also used in this study. We thank our brilliant and long-term collaborator and co-author J. Brink who sadly passed away during the course of this project.

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The Matjes River Rockshelter in the Western Cape, South Africa, 540 km east of Cape Town. Eight people who lived here between 10,200 and 3000 years ago contributed DNA to this study. Photo by Nicholas Wiltshire.

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Mandible of a hunter-gatherer woman who lived 7900 years ago at Matjes River Rockshelter in the Western Cape, South Africa, for whom a genome was reconstructed. Photo by Helena Malmström.

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Article Source: University of Johannesburg news release.

University of Toronto—Humans evolved over hundreds of thousands of years to be the ultimate flexible eaters – chasing carbohydrates and fats from plant and animal sources alike. A new study* in the Journal of Archaeological Research by researchers at the Australian National University and the University of Toronto Mississauga reveals early humans were far from the Palaeolithic meat-eaters sometimes portrayed, but rather relied heavily on a wide range of plant and animal foods. 

“We often discuss plant use as if it only became important with the advent of agriculture,” said Dr. Anna Florin, co-author of The Broad Spectrum Species: Plant Use and Processing as Deep Time Adaptations. “However, new archaeological discoveries from around the world are telling us our ancestors were grinding wild seeds, pounding and cooking starchy tubers, and detoxifying bitter nuts many thousands of years before this.”  

The research highlights that humans are a “broad-spectrum species,” and our ability to use diverse plant resources has shaped our evolutionary trajectory.  

 “This ability to process plant foods allowed us to unlock key calories and nutrients, and to move into, and thrive in, a range of environments globally,” added Dr. Monica Ramsey, the other co-author of this study, emphasizing the importance of “processed plant foods” to early human diets. 

“Our species evolved as plant-loving, tool-using foodies who could turn almost anything into dinner,” said Ramsey. 

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Article Source: University of Toronto news release.

*The Broad Spectrum Species: Plant Use and Processing as Deep Time Adaptations, Journal of Archaeological Research, 25-Nov-2025. 10.1007/s10814-025-09214-z 

Cover Image, Top Left: Pexels, Pixabay

Nagoya University—An international team of researchers has used knowledge of historical geography to reexamine the earliest datable total solar eclipse record known to the scientific community, enabling accurate measurements of Earth’s variable rotation speed from 709 BCE. The researchers calculated how the Sun would have appeared from Qufu, the ancient Chinese capital of the Lu Duchy, during the total solar eclipse. Using this information, they analyzed the ancient description of what has been considered the solar corona—the dim outer atmosphere of the Sun visible to the naked eye only during total eclipses—and found that its morphology supports recent solar cycle reconstructions for the 8th century BCE. 

Their findings*, published in Astrophysical Journal Letters, provide reliable new data about Earth’s rotation speed during this period and suggest the Sun was becoming more active after a long quiet period, independently confirming what other scientists have found using radiocarbon analysis.

Finding the true location of an ancient capital 

The total solar eclipse occurred on 17 July 709 BCE and was reported from Lu Duchy Court. Its description was found in a chronicle titled the “Spring and Autumn Annals” that was compiled roughly 2-3 centuries after the eclipse. The event was recorded as “the Sun was totally eclipsed.”  

“What makes this record special isn’t just its age, but also a later addendum in the ‘Hanshu’ (Book of Han) based on a quote written seven centuries after the eclipse. It describes the eclipsed Sun as ‘completely yellow above and below.’ This addendum has been traditionally associated with a record of a solar corona. If this is truly the case, it represents one of the earliest surviving written descriptions of the solar corona,” lead author Hisashi Hayakawa, Assistant Professor from the Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research and Institute for Advanced Research at Nagoya University explained. 

When the researchers tried to verify the solar eclipse record using modern astronomical calculations and reconstructions of Earth’s rotation speed, they found that a total eclipse would not have been visible from the Lu Court at Qufu. They realized earlier studies had missed the exact location of the ancient city. 

To correct the coordinates of ancient Qufu the researchers used knowledge of historical geography, consulting archaeological excavation reports of the ancient city. They found that previous studies used coordinates that were some eight kilometers away from the true location.  

“This correction allowed us to accurately measure the Earth’s rotation during the total eclipse, calculate the orientation of the Sun’s rotation axis, and simulate the corona’s appearance,” explained Hayakawa, who holds PhDs in both solar physics and oriental history. 

China developed exceptional traditions for astronomical records because ancient dynasties hired experts to monitor celestial events for omenological reasons—the practice of interpreting celestial events as omens or signs. They believed strange sky phenomena indicated political wrongdoing by emperors, which motivated careful tracking of eclipses, auroras, and other astronomical events. Consequently, this systematic record-keeping across multiple dynasties has given China some of the world’s best ancient eclipse records. 

While the 709 BCE event represents the earliest explicit written mention of a total solar eclipse and possibly the earliest surviving description that refers to a solar corona, Hayakawa and his colleagues raise caveats on the reliability of the corona description because it appears only in the Hanshu as a quote written some seven centuries after the event. Although questions remain about the reliability of the later corona description, the eclipse timing itself is based on scientific consensus and provides reliable new information on Earth’s rotation and potential independent support for recent solar cycle studies. 

When Earth spun faster and the Sun was quieter 

Our planet spins slightly slower now than it did 2,700 years ago because of several factors including friction from ocean tides caused by the Moon’s gravity. Using the corrected coordinates, the team derived new accurate measurements of Earth’s rotation speed in the 8th to 6th centuries BCE.  

The study revealed that delta T (ΔT), a parameter for the Earth’s rotation speed variability, during this eclipse was between 20,264 and 21,204 seconds. “This new dataset fixes coordinate errors in previous Earth rotation studies. Additionally, it improves the accuracy of dating and reconstructing historical astronomical events,” Mitsuru Sôma, coauthor from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan said. 

The research also supports recent solar cycle studies based on radiocarbon data from tree rings. “This unique historical addendum for the possible solar coronal structure is critical for providing a spot reference on solar activity reconstructions from tree rings and ice cores, as well as providing independent validation of solar activity models,” Mathew Owens, coauthor and professor of Space Physics at the University of Reading explained.  

During photosynthesis, trees absorb carbon, including radiocarbon, which is stored in their annual growth rings. Because radiocarbon concentrations reflect past cosmic ray levels and cosmic rays decrease when solar activity increases, scientists measure these concentrations to track solar activity over time and reconstruct past solar cycles.  

Approximately every 11 years the Sun cycles between more-active and less-active phases. Sometimes this pattern is interrupted by longer quiet periods called “grand minima” when the Sun produces only stray sunspots. The eclipse occurred just after the end of a period of decreased solar activity known as the “Neo Assyrian Grand Minimum” or “Homer Grand Minimum,” lasting from 808 to 717 BCE.  

Morphologically, the ancient observers’ descriptions of the probable coronal structure suggest the Sun had come back to regular solar cycles with substantial magnetic activity by 709 BCE and reached the peak of its 11-year cycle. This result supports what other scientists have reconstructed using tree ring data. 

This interdisciplinary study demonstrates how ancient human observations continue to provide invaluable scientific data. “Some of our ancestors were very skilled observers,” Dr. Meng Jin, coauthor from the Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory, noted. “When we combine their careful records with modern computational methods and historical evidence, we can potentially find new information about our planet and our star from thousands of years ago.”  

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Ancient Chinese text from the Spring and Autumn Annals that contains humanity’s earliest datable written record of a total solar eclipse from 709 BCE. The text states “In autumn, in the seventh month, on the renchen day, the first day of the month, the Sun was totally eclipsed.” The term “renchen” refers to a specific day in the traditional Chinese 60-day calendar cycle. Image courtesy of the National Archives of Japan

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Later Chinese historical text from the “Hanshu” (Book of Han), an official dynastic history, providing additional details about the 709 BCE eclipse. This source includes the description that the eclipsed Sun appeared “completely yellow above and below,” which scientists regard as a description of the solar corona. Image courtesy of the National Archives of Japan

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Artist’s interpretation of an ancient total solar eclipse. This illustration is based on artistic imagination and does not represent the exact appearance of the eclipse recorded in 709 BCE. Kano Okada, Nagoya University (Based on an image by Phil Hart: https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap240402.html)

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Article Source: Nagoya University news release.

*Analyses of the Ancient Chinese Report on the Total Solar Eclipse in 709 BCE: Implications for the Contemporaneous Earth’s Rotation Speed and Solar Cycles, The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 2-Dec-2025. 10.3847/2041-8213/ae0461 

Canada is a land shaped by ancient cultures, breathtaking landscapes, and Indigenous histories that stretch back more than 12,000 years. From prehistoric rock art sites to preserved ancestral villages, the country offers a remarkable archaeological trail that reveals the stories of the First Peoples who lived, hunted, created, and thrived long before modern cities emerged.

Today, travelers can embark on an unforgettable road trip across Canada to explore these Indigenous heritage sites at their own pace. Driving offers the flexibility to venture into remote regions, stop at meaningful landmarks, and discover the landscapes that shaped ancient cultures. Whether you’re starting from the West Coast, heading through the Prairies, or exploring the Atlantic provinces, Canada’s Indigenous Heritage Trail is a journey best experienced behind the wheel.

Why Explore Indigenous Archaeological Sites by Car?

A car-based journey allows travelers to experience Indigenous culture in a way no other mode of travel can. Many archaeology sites are located far from major cities, nestled within national parks, protected areas, and traditional territories. With your own vehicle, you can:

• Take scenic detours through forests, mountains, and coastal routes
• Spend extra time at meaningful cultural spots
• Visit multiple regions in one road trip
• Connect with nature and landscapes that hold historic significance

Before starting such a trip, many travelers search for auto detail shops near me to ensure their vehicle is fully ready for the long journey. A clean, well-maintained car not only improves comfort but prepares you for long hours on diverse terrains.

Western Canada: Ancient Villages & Rock Art Sites

1. Nuu-chah-nulth Territory, British Columbia

Vancouver Island is home to one of the richest Indigenous histories in Canada. The Nuu-chah-nulth people have lived along the Pacific Coast for millennia, leaving behind archaeological evidence including fish traps, shell middens, and ancient settlements.

Key Highlights:

• Yuquot (Friendly Cove), a UNESCO candidate site
• Kiixin Village, the only known traditional Nuu-chah-nulth village with intact longhouse remains
• Petroglyphs near Nanaimo and Sproat Lake

Exploring these sites by car allows you to stop at beaches, forests, and quiet coastal roads where ancient communities once thrived.

2. Writing-on-Stone / Áísínai’pi, Alberta

This UNESCO World Heritage Site is one of Canada’s most impressive ancient rock art locations. The Blackfoot people carved over 50,000 petroglyphs and pictographs into the sandstone cliffs, depicting spiritual beings, battles, animals, and ceremonial activities.

Why visit:

• Guided Indigenous-led tours
• Scenic driving through Milk River Valley
• Immersive storytelling and cultural interpretation

The dramatic landscapes enhance the archaeological experience, making it a must-stop on the Indigenous Heritage Trail.

3. The Prairies: Bison Jumps, Ceremonial Sites & Medicine Wheels

Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, Alberta

For more than 6,000 years, the Plains Indigenous peoples used this natural cliff to hunt bison with remarkable skill. Today, it stands as one of the oldest and best-preserved buffalo jumps in the world.

Visitors arriving by car can explore:

• A world-class Interpretive Centre
• Walking trails around the ancient cliff
• Exhibits describing traditional hunting techniques

4. Wanuskewin Heritage Park, Saskatchewan

Wanuskewin is considered older than the Pyramids of Egypt. Archaeologists have found artifacts dating back over 6,400 years, including tools, pottery, bones, and evidence of long-term settlement.

Car-friendly attractions include:

• Scenic prairie drives
• Outdoor trails to archaeological dig sites
• Reconstructed bison jumps
• Cultural performances and Indigenous cuisine

5. Majorville Medicine Wheel, Alberta

One of the largest and oldest medicine wheels in North America, this sacred stone structure may be as old as 5,000 years. The site sits atop a hill accessible only by rural roads, making it an excellent stop for road-trip travelers.

Central Canada: Lakes, Canoe Routes & Ancient Trading Networks

6. Petroglyphs Provincial Park, Ontario

Known as “The Teaching Rocks,” this site contains over 1,000 ancient carvings created by the Algonquin people. Symbols include turtles, shamans, canoes, and legendary clan figures.

Because the site is remote, arriving by car allows:

• Easy access to hiking trails
• Flexible timing away from crowds
• Visits to nearby lakes and forests

7. Manitou Mounds (Kay-Nah-Chi-Wah-Nung), Northwestern Ontario

This burial mound complex is one of North America’s most significant ancient Indigenous sacred sites. Archaeologists have discovered over 30 ceremonial mounds, some dating back nearly 5,000 years.

The site offers:

• A museum and cultural centre
• Scenic drives along the Rainy River
• Opportunities to learn about the Ojibwe and earlier cultures

Atlantic Canada: Mi’kmaq & Beothuk Cultural Landscapes

8. Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia

This park is famous for Mi’kmaq petroglyphs carved into shoreline rocks. Many depict daily life, wildlife, and encounters with early Europeans.

Traveling here by car offers:

• Lakeside drives
• Forest trails leading to archaeological zones
• Interpretive storytelling and canoe demonstrations

9. Port au Choix National Historic Site, Newfoundland

This coastal site contains 4,500 years of Indigenous history, including the remains of Maritime Archaic, Dorset, and Groswater peoples.

Visitors can explore:

• Ancient burial grounds
• Stone tools and artifacts
• The rugged coastline that shaped early life

Because this site sits on the remote Great Northern Peninsula, a car is essential for reaching it.

Northern Canada: The Earliest Inhabitants of the Arctic

10. Quttinirpaaq National Park, Nunavut

Although extremely remote, this site preserves archaeological evidence of the Paleo-Eskimo peoples who survived in the High Arctic thousands of years ago.

Reaching nearby communities requires flights, but local car hires or guided 4×4 tours offer access to:

• Ancient tent rings
• Tools made from bone and stone
• Arctic landscapes untouched by time

Tips for Planning Your Indigenous Heritage Road Trip

✔ Prepare Your Vehicle

Canada’s landscapes range from smooth highways to rugged gravel roads. Ensure your car has:

• Good tires
• Necessary fluids
• Emergency supplies
• A clean interior for long hours of travel

✔ Respect Indigenous Lands

Many archaeological sites are sacred. Visitors should:

• Follow guidelines
• Avoid touching carvings or artifacts
• Stay on marked trails
• Support Indigenous-led tours whenever possible

✔ Check for Cultural Centers

Many communities have visitor centres offering:

• Storytelling
• Guided hikes
• Traditional crafts
• Exhibits and documentaries

These help deepen understanding of the land and its history.

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Canada’s Indigenous Heritage Trail is not a single route but a tapestry of journeys woven across the country. Exploring it by car offers a rare chance to connect with ancient cultures, breathtaking nature, and the deep history that shaped the land we now call Canada.

From rock carvings in British Columbia to sacred mounds in Ontario and coastal settlements in Newfoundland, each stop highlights the enduring legacy of Indigenous peoples. A road trip through these archaeological sites is more than travel—it’s a cultural education, a spiritual encounter, and an unforgettable adventure.

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Cover Image, Top Left: Sonyuser, Pixabay

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Humans settled in the ancient landmass, Sahul, that birthed Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea around 60,000 years ago, according to a new study. The findings challenge a theory held by some researchers, who posit that Sahul’s peopling began 47,000 to 51,000 years ago. Moreover, the work suggests population movements happened via two routes, contrary to what those in the “short chronology” camp theorize. Debate swirls about when humans reached Sahul. The “long chronology” group, which argues that dispersal began 60,000 to 65,000 years ago, relies on evidence from archaeological and radiometric dating. The “short chronology” group favors a later settlement date based on recent Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial DNA data. Now, Francesca Gandini and colleagues provide mitogenomic evidence that supports the long chronology proposal and identifies two distinct routes that humans took to reach Sahul. They analyzed 2,456 contemporary and already-published mitochondrial genomes from Indigenous populations in Australia, New Guinea, and Oceania. Using a molecular clock approach, they reconstructed an evolutionary tree. Gandini et al. compared the tree’s lineages with mitogenomic data from Southeast Asia. They also accounted for mutation rates, Y-chromosome variation, and genome-wide changes, additionally incorporating climate data and archaeological evidence. Most present-day lineages traced back to humans that took a northern route around 60,000 years ago. The other lineages came from humans who took a southern route. These results also corroborate archaeological and fossil records that indicate the main migration of humans out of Africa likely commenced around 73 to 89 million years ago. Of the study’s implications, the authors write: “We have addressed and refined a Western science narrative that supports the peopling of Sahul in deep time but acknowledges and respects the ontological perspective that many Indigenous people hold: ‘We have always been here.’”

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Map of Sunda, Sahul, and the Western Pacific, with arrows showing potential migration routes
suggested by the mtDNA and Y chromosome distributions. Helen Farr, Erich Fisher

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Article Source: AAAS news release.

*Genomic evidence supports the “long chronology” for the peopling of Sahul, Science Advances, 28-Nov-2025. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ady9493

PLOS—The famous statues of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) were carved by numerous independent groups, according to a study published November 26, 2025 in the open-access journal PLOS One by Carl Philipp Lipo of Binghamton University, New York and colleagues.

The island of Rapa Nui is famous for preserving hundreds of stone statues (moai) carved by Polynesian communities starting in the 13^th century. Archaeological evidence consistently suggests that Rapa Nui society was not politically unified, consisting instead of small and independent family groups. This raises the question of whether the construction of moai was similarly decentralized.

In this study, researchers collected over 11,000 images of the primary moai quarry, Rano Raraku, to create a comprehensive 3D model of the quarry, including hundreds of moai preserved in various stages of completion. Detailed analysis of this model revealed 30 distinct centers of quarrying activity featuring a variety of carving techniques, suggesting multiple independent work areas. There is also evidence for transport of moai out of the quarry in many different directions. These patterns suggest that moai construction, like broader Rapa Nui society, was not organized by central management.

These findings challenge the common assumption that this scale of monument production requires hierarchical organization. The similarities that do exist between moai seem to reflect cultural sharing of information rather than communities actually working together to carve the figures. The quarry model created during this study also provides detailed data for future research and for cultural management of this UNESCO World Heritage site, and the data from here can be applied to carry out analysis at other sites.

The authors add: “Much of the so-called “mystery” of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) comes from the lack of openly available, detailed evidence that would allow researchers to evaluate hypotheses and construct explanations. Here, we present the first high-resolution 3D model of the moai quarry at Rano Raraku, the central quarry for nearly 1,000 statues, offering new insights into the organizational and manufacturing processes of these giant megalithic figures.”

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Article Source: PLOS news release.

*Lipo CP, Hunt TL, Pakarati G, Pingel T, Simmons N, Heard K, et al. (2025) Megalithic statue (moai) production on Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile). PLoS One 20(11): e0336251. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0336251

Cover Image, Top Left: SoniaJane, Pixabay

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—A study* uncovers evidence of the rise and fall of the wood economy under the Roman Empire in Central-Western Europe. The expansion of the Roman Empire north of the Alps in the first century BCE was accompanied by rapid cultural and technological changes. Wood was a key resource in expanding and establishing the empire in central-western Europe. However, evidence of logging is largely lacking in the written historical record. Bernhard Muigg, Andrea Seim, and colleagues compiled a dataset of 20,397 tree-ring series that were dendrochronologically dated. The samples came from archaeological excavations covering the period 300 BCE to 700 CE. The analysis showed that logging increased following the Roman expansion. Although the onset, intensity, and duration of logging varied by region, as time progressed and demand for wood ostensibly increased, logging reached primary forests far from the settlements—a development that suggests infrastructure and organization of the wood sector. Around the mid-third century CE, logging trends shifted and old growth forests, with trees that were at least 200 years old, became overexploited. Logging appears to have slowed during the fourth and fifth centuries CE, with the ages of trees progressively increasing thereafter. According to the authors, the findings reveal the impact of Roman expansion on the environmental and economic history of central-western Europe.

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Ground plan of a roman-period wooden building from the vicus (civil settlement) of Eschenz, Switzerland. Credit: Amt für Archäologie Thurgau (Schweiz), archaeologie.tg.ch.

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Roman-period water infrastructure in posts-and-planks construction from the vicus (civil settlement) of Eschenz, Switzerland. Credit: Amt für Archäologie Thurgau (Schweiz), archaeologie.tg.ch.

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University of Seville—A multidisciplinary team of Spanish and Portuguese archaeologists and artificial intelligence experts has combined non-destructive archaeological measurement techniques, machine learning and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) tools to develop an AI system applicable to archaeological research. In this specific case, to investigate the provenance of archaeological samples of variscite, a mineral with a characteristic green color highly appreciated in Prehistory and distributed by extensive exchange networks throughout Western Europe between the sixth and second millennium BC. It was used to make necklaces, bracelets, rings… Items of personal adornment in general.

This group of researchers has been collaborating for years to find out where variscite comes from in the different archaeological sites of the Iberian Peninsula. To do this, they compare current geological samples of variscite with samples found in archaeological excavations. They analyze the mineral, record its elements, and then compare the small chemical variations they present. Based on the similarities, it is possible to determine from which place it has been extracted.

The study*, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, is led by the University of Lisbon and has the participation of the Milá y Fontanals Institution for Research in the Humanities (IMF-CSIC), the University of Seville, the University of Alcalá and the the CIPAG (a Spanish acronym that stands for “Collective for the Research of Prehistory and Archaeology of Garraf-Ordal”).

A unique geochemical footprint in each mine

The innovation of this study lies in the use of AI to analyze the results of the chemical composition. “Our model learns to recognize the unique geochemical footprint of each mine. It is able to identify where a prehistoric bead comes from, even thousands of years after it was manufactured,” explains Daniel Sánchez-Gómez, a researcher at the University of Lisbon and lead author of the study. Thanks to this pioneering approach, they have been able to predict with 95% accuracy the geological origin of archaeological objects made with variscite.

In this way, the team has built the most extensive compositional database created to date, with more than 1,800 geological samples and 571 archaeological accounts, which have been analyzed using portable X-ray fluorescence.

To process the data, they used a random forest algorithm,  which is very commonly used in Machine Learning, which has allowed them to achieve unprecedented precision. In addition, explains Ferrán Borrell, an archaeologist at the IMF-CSIC, “something very remarkable about this project is that the information has been uploaded to Zenodo [an open repository developed under the European OpenAIRE program and operated by CERN], so that other researchers can use that data and make their own interpretations. It is working with open science.”  Ferran Borrell directs the excavation project of the prehistoric variscite mines in Gavà (Spain), from which part of the samples studied come from.  

The results have made it possible to reinterpret prehistoric trade routes. Now, the researchers explain, we can know that the mines of Gavà (Barcelona, Spain) and Aliste (Zamora, Spain) were the main production and distribution centers; that the traditionally cited source of Encinasola (Huelva, Spain) would have been of lesser importance; and that the materials found in Brittany (France) probably come from the north of the Iberian Peninsula, suggesting trans-Pyrenean land routes, rather than the maritime ones proposed so far.

“We have used explainable artificial intelligence techniques, which allow AI models, especially the most complex ones, to explain in a clear and understandable way how they make their decisions. In the case of our research, this means that it not only accurately predicts, but also shows us which chemical elements were decisive in each classification, bringing transparency and rigor to archaeological interpretation,” adds Carlos Odriozola, professor at the University of Seville and PI of the project. This methodological framework, called VORTEX (Variscite Origin Recognition Technology X-ray based), opens up new possibilities for the study of the provenance of other archaeological materials, such as amber, and constitutes a milestone in the application of artificial intelligence to cultural heritage.

Now, according to Manuel Edo Benaiges, co-author of the article, we must try to address the following questions: What was the reason for the expansion phenomenon of the green stone? How did this expansion through Western Europe occur over time? Where did it start? The interpretations are many, always with the common goal of knowing more about the past. “It’s not just about green beads: it’s about using artificial intelligence to tell the human stories of prehistory,” concludes Sánchez-Gómez.

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Article Source: University of Seville news release.

Medieval cities were vibrant, noisy, crowded, and full of contradictions. They were hubs of trade, art, craftsmanship, and political power—but also centers of disease, fire hazards, pollution, and constant struggle for basic sanitation. Yet, despite their chaotic reputation, medieval towns were not lawless. In fact, medieval authorities—kings, city councils, guilds, and local courts—created extensive regulations to protect urban life. Their rules shaped housing, hygiene, trade, marketplaces, and even personal behavior.

Understanding how medieval cities managed public health and daily life gives us a fascinating look into early urban governance, and it shows that even centuries ago, communities recognized the need for regulations—something reflected today in modern frameworks such as local law 10/11 westchester county, which similarly aims to maintain safe, healthy living environments through building and safety codes.

Let’s step inside a medieval city to explore how ordinary people lived and the rules that shaped their daily lives.

I. Life Inside the Walls: The Urban Landscape

Medieval cities were almost always enclosed by thick defensive walls. Entering through a city gate meant stepping into a dense maze of:

• Narrow streets, often muddy or uneven
• Timber houses, leaning precariously inward
• Shops and workshops, spilling onto walkways
• Markets, full of noise, animals, and smells
• Churches and monasteries, dominating the skyline

This physical layout influenced everything—public health, fire risks, water distribution, and social interactions. Because space was limited and expanding city walls was expensive, medieval urban planners had to think creatively about regulations long before modern zoning existed.

II. Housing and Urban Planning

1. Building Codes (Yes, Even in the Middle Ages!)

Contrary to popular belief, medieval authorities did impose building regulations. These laws controlled:

• How far upper floors could extend over streets
• Which materials were allowed (stone preferred over flammable timber)
• Where waste outlets could be placed
• How close neighbors could build

For example, in 12th–14th century London, Paris, and Italian city-states, it was illegal to build wooden houses without firebreaks. Stone and tile roofs became mandatory in many areas after major urban fires.

2. Multi-Story Living

As cities grew crowded, houses expanded vertically. Shops were often on the ground floor, with families living above. Wealthier families decorated their facades, while poorer residents shared cramped rooms, sometimes with entire extended families.

3. Renting and Tenancy Rules

Landlords were common. Medieval tenancy agreements established:

• Basic maintenance responsibilities
• Limits on how many animals tenants could keep
• Rules on shared courtyards and wells

These were early versions of modern occupancy and safety codes.

III. Public Health: A Constant Battle

Public health was a major concern in medieval cities—especially as population density increased.

1. Water Supply Systems

Water came from:

• Wells (public or private)
• Rivers or streams
• Aqueducts in wealthier cities (e.g., Rome’s medieval renovations or Islamic cities)

City councils regulated who could access public wells and fined those who contaminated them. Washing animal parts or dumping waste into a communal water source was punishable by law.

2. Waste Management: More Organized Than You Might Think

Waste was an enormous issue, but cities implemented various solutions:

a. Cesspits and Privies

Most homes had cesspits, which needed regular emptying by designated workers called gong farmers in England. Regulations required homeowners to maintain their pits and prevented them from being built too close to wells.

b. Street Cleaning

City councils hired laborers to remove:

• Mud
• Manure
• Household waste
• Dead animals

Guilds were often responsible for keeping the area near their workshops clean. Residents who threw garbage out of windows—common behavior—faced fines.

c. Butchers and Tanners

Slaughterhouses, tanneries, and dye works created toxic waste. Medieval laws restricted them to specific districts near rivers, often downstream from the drinking supply.

3. Disease Control and Quarantine

The Black Death (1347–1351) transformed urban governance.

Cities introduced:

• Quarantine laws for ships and travelers
• Pest houses for the sick
• Restrictions on gatherings
• Appointment of plague doctors and city health officers

Italian city-states like Venice pioneered quarantine islands and health boards—early versions of public health departments.

IV. Food Safety and Market Regulations

Markets were the heart of urban life—socially and economically. To protect consumers, medieval authorities imposed detailed rules.

1. Baker and Brewer Regulations

Using short measures or producing low-quality food was a crime. In England, the Assize of Bread and Ale (13th century) set official standards for:

• Weight and price of bread
• Quality of ale
• Hygiene in bakeries

Offending bakers were placed in the pillory, a public humiliation.

2. Butchers and Fishmongers

Food spoilage was common, so officials—called market inspectors or tasters—checked products daily. Selling rotten meat or fish was punishable by fines, confiscation, or banning from the market.

3. Weights and Measures

Cities maintained standardized weights to prevent fraud. Merchants caught cheating customers faced harsh penalties.

V. Environmental and Air Quality Regulations

Smoke and smell were constant problems.

1. Smoke Control

Bans were placed on burning specific fuels within city limits, especially coal in 14th-century London due to air pollution. Blacksmiths, fullers, and lime burners were sometimes pushed outside the walls.

2. Noise Regulations

Nighttime peace was important. Laws restricted:

• Late-night tavern gatherings
• Street musicians after curfew
• Loud workshop activities

VI. Fire Prevention: A Top Priority

Fire was the greatest danger to medieval cities. Regulations included:

• Mandatory night curfews to extinguish hearth fires
• Firefighting equipment (hooks, ladders, buckets) stored in public squares
• Stone or brick construction in high-risk areas
• Bans on thatched roofs in many cities

Cities often employed night watchmen to detect fires early.

VII. Policing, Courts, and Everyday Rules

1. Night Watch and Curfews

Most European cities required citizens to carry lanterns after sunset. Gates were locked at night, and curfews controlled movement to prevent crime.

2. Guild Regulations

Guilds enforced:

• Work hours
• Product quality
• Apprenticeship rules
• Use of specific tools and materials

This created a structured workforce and predictable economic system.

3. Moral and Social Regulations

Authorities also controlled:

• Tavern hours
• Gambling
• Prostitution
• Public drunkenness
• Carrying weapons

These rules aimed to maintain order and moral discipline.

VIII. Community Responsibility and Civic Duty

Medieval urban life depended on cooperation. Citizens were expected to:

• Join firefighting efforts
• Maintain street cleanliness outside their homes
• Participate in watch duty
• Contribute to wall repairs
• Help fund bridges, wells, and public buildings

Civic pride drove improvements in public services, boosting public health and safety.

IX. Lessons From Medieval Urban Management

Although medieval cities lacked modern science and technology, they developed surprisingly sophisticated systems for managing urban life. Their rules were born out of necessity: the need to keep people safe in dense settlements where disease, fire, and pollution were constant threats.

Many principles remain relevant today:

• Building codes prevent structural hazards
• Sanitation regulations protect public health
• Market rules ensure safe, fair commerce
• Environmental laws safeguard communities

Just as medieval cities used ordinances to maintain order, modern communities rely on contemporary frameworks—including regulations like local law 10/11 westchester county—to ensure buildings are safe, habitable, and compliant with essential health standards. Urban governance has evolved, but the core mission remains the same: protecting the people who live within the city’s boundaries.

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Stepping inside a medieval city reveals a world both familiar and alien. Streets bustling with merchants, homes stacked atop shops, wells shared among neighbors, and officials attempting to enforce order amidst chaos. Public health rules, housing regulations, and everyday laws shaped the medieval urban experience just as modern regulations shape ours today.

From fire prevention to food safety, medieval cities laid the foundation for many of the laws and systems we consider essential in today’s urban life. Their legacy lives on in the regulations that continue to keep our cities safe, healthy, and livable.

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Cover Image, Top Left: johnNaturePhotos, Pixabay