Archives: Articles

This is the example article

Researchers Investigate Archaic Greek City-State in Crete

Posted on February 6, 2014 by No Author -

An ancient site in eastern Crete may now be providing some answers to the questions of how and why the earliest Archaic city-states on this important Greek island of the Aegean developed and emerged more than 2,500 years ago.

Led by Project Director and archaeologist Donald Haggis of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, and Field Director Margaret Mook of Iowa State University, a research and excavation team will return to the location of Azoria, an archaeological site situated on a hill overlooking the Gulf of Mirabello in northeastern Crete. Initially explored by the American archaeologist Harriet Boyd-Hawes in 1900, the site has since yielded evidence of human occupation from Final Neolithic times until shortly after 200 B.C.E. The most prolific remains recovered, however, span the periods corresponding to a long, continuous occupation from the Early Iron Age or Greek Dark Age (1200-700 B.C.E.) into the Early Archaic (700-600 B.C.E.).

Haggis and his team first began full-scale excavations at the site in 2002, and continued work at the site through 2006, uncovering, among many other finds, significant structural remains of Archaic civic buildings and houses. Their aim was to explore the early history of the site and develop a stratigraphy and chronology of changes in the settlement during the transition from the Early Iron Age to the Archaic, with a special focus on understanding the development of the 6th-century B.C.E. urban center, the early Greek city-state.

Previous excavations have already uncovered an Archaic multi-room structure called the Communal Dining Building, interpreted as a possible dining hall used for corporate syssitia, (a communal meal of male citizens organized as hetairiai, or clubs); the Monumental Civic Building, a large hall with a stepped bench built into the walls of its interior; and an adjoining two-room shrine. This building complex included nearby buildings or facilities thought to have provided support services, containing multiple store rooms (consisting of food stored in pithoi) and kitchens with stone-lined hearths. Also discovered with the service complex was a well-preserved olive press facility—considered the earliest known beam press of the post-Bronze Age Aegean. Evidence pointed to a fiery destruction at Azoria in the 5th century B.C.E.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Interior view of the Monumental Civic Building. Wikimedia Commons

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Interior view of the northwest service building storeroom. Wikimedia Commons

________________________________________________________________________________________

Service building kitchens. Wikimedia Commons

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Service building kitchen destruction deposit. Wikimedia Commons

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Terracotta votive figurines from the altar in the Archaic shrine at Azoria. Wikimedia Commons

_________________________________________________________________________________________

But the excavation goals go far beyond developing an understanding of one site.

Reports Haggis and Mook: “The excavation constitutes the first case study of the political economy of Archaic Crete, while augmenting our knowledge of the agropastoral resource base of Aegean communities in early stages of urbanization.” Researchers hope that knowledge gained from the excavations will inform further exploration of the beginnings of urbanization and the formation of early Greek city-states in Crete.*

For the coming season of work, set to begin at the end of May, 2014, Haggis and Mook intend to field a team of professional staff, students and volunteers to take up the task of gathering additional archaeological data to help fill in more gaps in the total picture of urban beginnings.

“Our plan of work for 2013-2017 is to excavate an early Greek temple (ca. 1000-700 B.C.E.) and several Archaic-period houses (6th and early 5th c. B.C.E.), and to conduct a number of stratigraphic soundings in the area of the civic buildings in order to refine our understanding of the chronology and history of the site.”**

See the project website for more information about the excavations, field school, and how one can participate as a student or volunteer.

The Azoria excavations are conducted under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens.

____________________________

* http://www.unc.edu/~dchaggis/

** http://www.unc.edu/~dchaggis/Fieldschool.html

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

And, Popular Archaeology’s annual Discovery edition is a selection of the best stories published in Popular Archaeology Magazine in past issues, with an emphasis on some of the most significant, groundbreaking, or fascinating discoveries in the fields of archaeology and paleoanthropology and related fields. At least some of the articles have been updated or revised specifically for the Discovery edition. We can confidently say that there is no other single issue of an archaeology-related magazine, paper print or online, that contains as much major feature article content as this one. The latest issue, volume 2, has just been released. Go to the Discovery edition page for more information.

Subscription Price: A very affordable $5.75 for those who are not already premium subscribers of Popular Archaeology Magazine (It is FREE for premium subscribers to Popular Archaeology). Premium subscribers should email [email protected] and request the special coupon code. Or, for the e-Book version, it can be purchased for only $3.99 at Amazon.com.

New Clues to Neanderthal-Modern Human Interbreeding

Posted on January 29, 2014 by No Author -

It is almost common knowledge now, thanks to recent DNA studies, that many non-African humans living today have traces of Neanderthal DNA within their genomes — the evidence, according to geneticists, that anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) interbred with their contemporary Neanderthal species cousins tens of thousands of years ago in places where they coexisted in present-day Europe and Asia.

Now, a new study, conducted by researchers under the leadership of Benjamin Vernot and Joshua Akey of the University of Washington, Seattle, have come up with a proven methodology to determine the percentages and precise genome segments that have been inherited, and which parts of the total Neanderthal genome sequence is observed to have bestowed an adaptive advantage (and thus retained) in their modern human descendants.

Their model involved a two-staged computational strategy framework, without additonal sampling of fossil remains, applied to whole-genome sequences of 379 Europeans and 286 East Asians, courtesy of data from the 1000 Genomes Project. The results of their research suggested that, while the total amount of Neanderthal sequence in any individual modern human is relatively low, about 2 – 4 percent, the cumulative amount of the Neanderthal genome identified across all humans in the aggregate represents segments that constituted about 20 percent of a total Neanderthal genome sequence.

In some parts of the modern genome, they observed large regions without Neanderthal DNA, suggesting that certain portions of the archaic genetic sequence were deleterious to survival. On the other hand, they also observed sections of the modern sequence that showed more Neanderthal DNA than expected. Vernot and Akey concluded that these sequences remained because their functions provided an adaptive advantage, perhaps related to skin phenotype.

Their study could have far-reaching implications for further research.

“Our results provide a new avenue for paleogenomics studies,” write Vernot and Akey in their report, “allowing substantial amounts of population-level DNA sequence information to be obtained from extinct groups even in the absence of fossilized remains……. potentially allowing the discovery and characterization of previously unknown hominins that interbred with modern humans.”*

In a related study published in the Jan. 29 issue of the journal Nature, another team of scientists led by Harvard Medical School geneticist David Reich, including Svante Pääbo of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, has obtained results suggesting that modern human populations have inherited other genetic traits from Neanderthals that are connected to both positive adaptive functions and characteristics and those that could be described as negative. They have found traces of Neanderthal DNA, for example, that have affected the keratin filaments in the skin — proteins that make hair, nails and skin tougher for surviving colder climates — genes that affect the immune system; and genes that affect such conditions as Crohn’s disease, type 2 diabetes, smoking behavior, billiary cirrhosis, and lupus. The researchers did this by analyzing the genetic variants found in 846 non-African people and 176 people from sub-Saharan Africa, and then comparing the results to that of a 50,000-year-old Neanderthal with a relatively intact genome sequence.

Details of the Vernot and Akey study are published in the journal Science, and on January 29, 2014 in Sciencexpress.

_________________________

Cover Photo, Top Left: Working in a clean room, researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, took extensive precautions to avoid contaminating Neanderthal DNA samples – extracted from bones like this one – with DNA from any other source, including modern humans. NHGRI researchers are part of the international team that sequenced the genome of the Neanderthal, Homo neanderthalensis. Wikimedia Commons

*Article #16: “Resurrecting Surviving Neanderthal Lineages from Modern Human Genomes,” by B. Vernot; J.M. Akey at University of Washington in Seattle, WA.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Scientists Discover Cause of Devastating Plague of Justinian

Posted on January 28, 2014 by No Author -

An international team of scientists has discovered that two of the world’s most devastating plagues – the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death, each responsible for killing as many as half the people in Europe during the time of their outbreak—were caused by distinct strains of the same pathogen, one that faded out on its own, the other leading to worldwide spread and re-emergence in the late 1800s. The findings suggest a new strain of plague could emerge again in humans in the future.

“The research is both fascinating and perplexing,” says Hendrik Poinar, associate professor and director of the McMaster Ancient DNA Centre and an investigator with the Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research. “It generates new questions which need to be explored. For example, why did this pandemic [the Plague of Justinian], which killed somewhere between 50 and 100 million people, die out?”

The findings are dramatic because little has been known about the origins or cause of the Justinian Plague– which helped bring an end to the Roman Empire – and its relationship to the Black Death, some 800 years later.

Scientists hope this could lead to a better understanding of the dynamics of modern infectious disease, including a form of the plague that still kills thousands every year.

The Plague of Justinian struck in the sixth century and is estimated to have killed between 30 and 50 million people— virtually half the world’s population as it spread across Asia, North Africa, Arabia and Europe. The Black Death would strike some 800 years later with similar force, killing 50 million Europeans between just 1347 and 1351 alone.

Using sophisticated methods, researchers from many universities including McMaster University, Northern Arizona University and the University of Sydney, isolated miniscule DNA fragments from the 1500-year-old teeth of two victims of the Justinian plague, buried in a small cemetery in the German town of Aschheim. Scientists believe the victims died in the latter stages of the epidemic when it had reached southern Bavaria, Germany, likely sometime between 541 and 543.

Using these short fragments, they reconstructed the genome of the oldest Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for the plague, and compared it to a database of genomes of more than a hundred contemporary strains. They show the strain responsible for the Justinian outbreak was an evolutionary ‘dead-end’ and distinct from strains involved later in the Black Death and other plague pandemics that would follow. These are the oldest pathogen genomes obtained to date.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Skeletal remains, partially buried. Courtesy McMaster University

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Skeletal remains after exhumation. Courtesy McMaster University

________________________________________________________________________________________

Ancient tooth from one of the exhumed victims of the Justinian Plague. Courtesy McMaster University

_________________________________________________________________________________________

The third pandemic, which spread from Hong Kong across the globe is likely a descendant of the Black Death strain and thus much more successful than the one responsible for the Justinian Plague.

“We know the bacterium Y. pestis has jumped from rodents into humans throughout history and rodent reservoirs of plague still exist today in many parts of the world. If the Justinian plague could erupt in the human population, cause a massive pandemic, and then die out, it suggest it could happen again. Fortunately we now have antibiotics that could be used to effectively treat plague, which lessens the chances of another large scale human pandemic” says Dave Wagner, an associate professor in the Center for Microbial Genetics and Genomics at Northern Arizona University.

Researchers now believe the Justinian Y. pestis strain originated in Asia, not in Africa as originally thought. But they could not establish a ‘molecular clock’ so its evolutionary time-scale remains elusive. This suggests that earlier epidemics, such as the Plague of Athens (430 BC) and the Antonine Plague (165 -180 AD), could also be separate, independent emergences of related Y. pestis strains into humans.

“The tick of the plague bacteria molecular clock is highly erratic. Determining why is an important goal for future research” says Edward Holmes, an NHMRC Australia Fellow at the University of Sydney.

Our response to modern infectious diseases is a direct outcome of lessons learned from ancestral pandemics, say the researchers.

“This study raises intriguing questions about why a pathogen that was both so successful and so deadly died out. One testable possibility is that human populations evolved to become less susceptible,” says Holmes.

“Another possibility is that changes in the climate became less suitable for the plague bacterium to survive in the wild,” says Wagner.

The results are currently published in the online edition of The Lancet Infectious Diseases.

________________________________

The research was funded in part by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, Canada Research Chairs Program, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. National Institutes of Health and the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council.

________________________________

Source: Adapted and edited from a McMaster University Press Release.

Cover Photo, Top Left:

McMaster’s Jennifer Klunk examines a sample. Courtesy McMaster University

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archaeology News for the Week of January 26th, 2014

Posted on January 28, 2014 by No Author -

January 28th, 2014

Scientists Discover Cause of Devastating Plague of Justinian

Portrait of a Mesolithic Period Individual Emerges

Researchers in Spain recovered and studied a genome of a Mesolithic period European hunter-gatherer, and concluded that he had blue eyes and dark skin. Designated La Braña 1, the specimen was unearthed at the La Braña-Arintero site in Valdelugueros (León, Spain), where the remains of at least one other skeleton was uncovered. They were discovered by chance in 2006 and excavated by Julio Manuel Vidal Encinas, an archeologist with the Council of Castilla y León. (Popular Archaeology)

Carmel cavemen used plants in rituals 13,000 years ago, archaeologists find

Cavemen in ancient Israel not only buried their dead with flowers – they also apparently had an advanced culture of plant use, not only for consumption but for ritual as well. The earliest evidence of using flower beds for burial, some 13,700 years ago, was reported in Raqefet Cave in Mt. Carmel last summer. In four different graves from the Natufian period, dating back to 13,700 to 11,700 years ago, dozens of impressions of salvia and other mint species were found under human skeletons. (Haaretz.com)

Ancient Roman Infanticide Didn’t Spare Either Sex, DNA Suggests

A new look at a cache of baby bones discovered in Britain is altering assumptions about why ancient Romans committed infanticide. Infant girls were apparently not killed more often than baby boys, researchers report in an upcoming issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science. (LiveScience)

Evidence Shows Prehistoric Humans Used Fire 300,000 Years Ago

New findings reported in the Journal of Archaeological Science suggest that prehistoric humans were able to control and use fire at their will. A team of Israeli scientists discovered the earliest evidence of unequivocal repeated fire building over a continuous period in the Qesem Cave. This evidence, found at an archaeological site near present-day Rosh Ha’ayin, dates back to around 300,000 years ago. (RedOrbit)

Babylonian tablet shows how Noah’s ark could have been constructed

Noah’s ark was never built, still less crash landed on Mount Ararat, a British Museum expert has declared – despite holding in his hand 3,700-year-old instructions on exactly how to construct one. “I am 107% convinced the ark never existed,” Irving Finkel said. His discoveries, since a member of the public brought a battered clay tablet with 60 lines of neat cuneiform text to Finkel – one of the few people in the world who could read them – are outlined in a new book, The Ark Before Noah. (TheGuardian)

Cardigan Castle: 9,500 artefacts found in archaeological dig

Part of a dolphin skull and a medieval arrowhead are among more than 9,500 artefacts uncovered by an archaeological dig at Cardigan Castle. The 18-month project to uncover the 800-year history of the site has been conducted by NPS Archaeology. Excavation work has also revealed a new part of the original castle which dates back to the 1170s. It is part of an £11m renovation project which aims to re-open part of the site this year. (BBC News)

Portrait of a Mesolithic Period Individual Emerges

Posted on January 26, 2014 by No Author -

Researchers in Spain recovered and studied a genome of a Mesolithic period European hunter-gatherer, and concluded that he had blue eyes and dark skin.

Designated La Braña 1, the specimen was unearthed at the La Braña-Arintero site in Valdelugueros (León, Spain), where the remains of at least one other skeleton was uncovered. They were discovered by chance in 2006 and excavated by Julio Manuel Vidal Encinas, an archeologist with the Council of Castilla y León. The cave, located in a cold mountainous area with a steady temperature and 1,500 meters below sea level, contributed to the “exceptional” preservation of the DNA from the two individuals found inside, called La Braña 1 and La Braña 2, respectively.

The remains were determined to be 7,000 years old, placing them well within the Mesolithic Period. The Mesolithic lasted 5,000 years (between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic periods), and ended with the advent of agriculture and livestock farming. The arrival of the Neolithic, when humans had a carbohydrate-based diet and new pathogens were transmitted by domesticated animals, entailed metabolic and immunological challenges that were reflected in genetic adaptations of post-Mesolithic populations. Among these is the ability to digest lactose. The study indicated that the La Braña individual was not capable of this process.

According to Carles Lalueza-Fox, researcher from the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), in collaboration with the Centre for GeoGenetics (Denmark), La Braña 1 represents the first recovered genome of a European hunter-gatherer.

“The biggest surprise was to discover that this individual possessed African versions in the genes that determine the light pigmentation of the current Europeans, which indicates that he had dark skin, although we cannot know the exact shade,” says Lalueza-Fox.

Another CSIC researcher, who works at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology (a joint centre of CSIC and the University Pompeu Fabra (UPF), located in Barcelona), adds: “Even more surprising was to find that he possessed the genetic variations that produce blue eyes in current Europeans, resulting in a unique phenotype in a genome that is otherwise clearly northern European”.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

La Braña 1 had blue eyes and dark skin. Credit: PELOPANTON / CSIC

________________________________________________________________________________________

The genome study suggests that the current populations that best match La Braña 1 are in northern Europe, such as Sweden and Finland. In addition, the work indicates that La Braña 1 has a common ancestor with the settlers of the Upper Paleolithic site of Mal’ta, located at Lake Baikal (Siberia), whose genome was recovered a few months ago. Lalueza-Fox concludes: “These data indicate that there is genetic continuity in the populations of central and western Eurasia. In fact, these data are consistent with the archeological remains, as in other excavations in Europe and Russia, including the site of Mal’ta, [where] anthropomorphic figures –called Paleolithic Venus– have been recovered and they are very similar to each other.”

What’s next for the research? According to Iñigo Olalde, lead author of the study, “the intention of the team is to try to recover the genome of the individual called La Braña 2, which is worse preserved, in order to keep obtaining information about the genetic characteristics of these early Europeans.”

The research is published in Nature.

_____________________________________

Source: Adapted and edited from a Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) press release.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

History-Making Expedition Recruits New Scientists

Posted on January 25, 2014 by No Author -

The “Rising Star Expedition”, known for its recent recovery of one of the largest troves of hominin (early human) fossils ever discovered in one place, is now ambitiously seeking new early-career scientists to study the more than 1,200 fossil elements retrieved from the site and now housed at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits University) in Johannesburg, South Africa.

“The fossil material is an exceptional sample representing most of the parts of the skeleton, and our first task is to describe the material and place it into the context of hominin evolution,” says John Hawks, a paleoanthropologist with the University of Wisconsin-Madison and a key member of the team that recovered the fossils during the Fall of 2013.*

To that end, Professor Lee Berger of Wits University initiated an effort to recruit the best young minds he can find to help examine the finds and publish some of the first scientific observations, analyses and conclusions about the morphology, among other aspects, of the fragments, and what they might mean in terms of their place in the broad scope of human evolution. Berger has been at the forefront of major hominin fossil discoveries in South Africa, such as the recent Australopithecus sediba finds at the Malapa cave site.

“We are seeking early-career scientists with data and skill sets applicable to the study of any part of the anatomy of early hominins,” say Berger and colleagues in the recently released announcement. “Participants must be willing to share these data and skills in a collaborative workshop designed to study, describe and publish these important hominin fossils.”**

While the workshop participants will receive mentoring from established senior scientists, their publications will be under their authorship and will be considered to be “high impact” publications.

The project is at least in part representative of Berger’s philosophy of “open science”, where scholars and scientists from all over the world are invited to play an active role in the process of research and discovery, expanding the perspectives, skills and knowledge sets brought to bear on finding the answers to important research questions. Traditionally, research on new finds in the field of paleoanthropology has often been conducted by a relatively closed set of scholars or scientists over a long period of time, resulting in new hypotheses or theories and conclusions that might have been different if ‘more eyes’ were brought to bear on the subjects of study.

The workshops are also intended to help build a bigger, brighter future for the science.

“We are recruiting an international team, and we are especially interested in building a group that will continue to produce great science in the future,” says Hawks.*

The trove of bones were first discovered in a south African cave system in October, 2013 by a pair of skilled cavers, who then alerted Berger. To investigate the cave and its contents, Berger spearheaded the assembly of an expeditionary group (called the “Rising Star Expedition”) of scientists. Along with chief scientists, the group included six researchers (who Berger dubbed “underground astronauts”) who were hand-picked to actually enter the cave system to excavate and remove the fossil bones. To qualify for this job, these team members had to have a master’s degree or Ph.D. in paleontology, archaeology or a related field; they had to be experienced spelunkers, or cavers; and they had to be small enough to successfully and safely negotiate an 18-centimeter-wide opening leading to the targeted cave chamber. The effort has proven to be a great success, producing more than 1,200 fossil specimens representing a number of individuals initially identified as early hominins. The type of hominin is still unknown. It is one of the questions that the workshop project team hopes to answer.

There is more ahead. While excavating, the Rising Star team found evidence of articulated skeletons just below the levels where they were digging. These have yet to be recovered.

“Thousands of elements are left there”, said Berger on a recent National Geographic weekend radio show. “We have excavated an area of only half the size of a normal breakfast table, and two or three inches deep, to recover more than a thousand elements of more than a dozen individuals…..and just underneath [that] surface, we find articulated remains — their bodies are there, and that’s what I had to close up.”***

Berger plans to return to the site for further excavation.

More information about the Rising Star Expedition can be acquired at the National Geographic website dedicated to covering the project. For scientists interested in applying for the Workshop, see this website for additional information.

______________________________

*http://johnhawks.net/topics/expeditions/rising-star-workshop-announcement.html

** http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2014/01/17/call-for-scientists-to-join-rising-star-workshop-2014/

*** http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2013/12/09/a-voice-from-the-cave-lee-berger-on-the-ng-weekend-radio-show/

Cover Photo, Top Left: Lee Berger (giving a tour in 2006). Courtesy Lee Berger, Wikimedia Commons, CC-BY-SA-2.5,2.0,1.0; Released under the GNU Free Documentation License.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Paleogenomics Changing the Face of Research

Posted on January 23, 2014 by No Author -

Recent stories appearing in scientific journals and the public media have informed us of some remarkable developments in the science of genetics as it relates to better understanding our past. Just a few of many examples:

— The most complete sequence to date of the Neanderthal genome, using DNA extracted from a woman’s toe bone that dates back 50,000 years, revealed a long history of interbreeding among at least four different types of early humans living in Europe and Asia tens of thousands of years ago;

— Researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, successfully sequenced a complete mitochondrial (mtDNA) genome of a 400,000-year-old representative of the genus Homo (ancient human) from Sima de los Huesos, a cave site in northern Spain that has yielded some of the earliest fossil specimens of humans in present-day Europe. They found that the individual was related to Denisovans, extinct relatives of Neanderthals in Asia, through a common ancestor; and

— The results of a recent study of canine genomes has suggested that dogs and their wolf cousins shared an evolutionary history that is considerably more complex than previously thought, pointing to a common ancestor that lived between 11,000 and 34,000 years ago, and that the earliest dogs may have first lived among hunter-gatherer societies, before the advent of agriculture.

To date, scientists have excavated an untold number of fossil bones, from both animals and their human subset, with the hope that ancient remnants of DNA might somehow be found more or less intact within the fossilized bones. They believe that DNA will be a major key to reconstructing the picture of where we and other animals came from, and how. Now, thanks to advances in DNA extraction and the establishment and growth of DNA libraries of information, scientists are gaining an increasing ability to sequence genomes, a key aspect of the emerging new science of paleogenomics, or the study of ancient DNA. In a Review article published in the journal Science, authors B. Shapiro and M. Hofreiter relate how scientific investigation of the animal world’s physical past is evolving from one that emphasizes excavation to one that includes DNA sequencing as a major component of research. They discuss the successes and advancements as well as the limitations, and suggest that the use of paleogenomics will continue to expand.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Samples collected from the La Brea tarpits in Los Angeles, CA, have long been targets of paleogenomic analysis. However, despite their incredibly good physical preservation, these bones have proven difficult to use in genetic research, because the tar cannot be completely removed from the bones. Recent advances in techniques for ancient DNA extraction may make bones such as those from La Brea possible targets for paleogenomic analysis, dramatically increasing the range of species that can be analyzed. [Courtesy of Mathias Stiller]

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Scientists working in the Klondike gold fields near Dawson City, Yukon Territory, uncover thousands of bones, tusks, and teeth representing the preserved remains of the ice age megafauna. Here (left), Jana Morehouse crouches behind a frozen mammoth tusk that was exposed as part of placer mining activities. Remains such as these are used in paleogenomic analyses to understand processes including genome evolution and how populations respond to climate change over the short and medium term. [Courtesy of Tyler Kuhn]

________________________________________

The article appears in the 24 January 2014 issue of Science, published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), a nonprofit science society.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archaeologists Return to Neanderthal Site in Spain

Posted on January 22, 2014 by No Author -

A rock shelter site located above the river Segre in the Pyrenees foothills of northeastern Spain is yielding evidence of Neanderthal occupation that could post-date 40,000 years BP, according to researchers. This would place the ancient occupiers among the last Neanderthals to inhabit the area of present-day Europe, and finds at the site could provide clues to how the Neanderthals adapted to changing environmental circumstances and whether or not they coexisted with the emerging modern human populations in the region.

Called La Roca dels Bous, the rock shelter has been the subject of intense excavation and study by archaeologists and student volunteers under the joint direction of Dr. Rafael Mora Torcal of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Ma. Xavier Roda Gilabert of the Ministry of Science and Innovation of the Spanish Government, and Adrià Millán Gil of archaeoBarcelona. Their excavations have uncovered materials typically associated with Neanderthals, including flint artifacts characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic period (300,000 – 30,000 yr. BP), and bones from animals that are known from previous research to have been a part of the Neanderthal diet, such as red deer, wild horses, and wild goats. Other finds included a number of hearths, or areas where the inhabitants used controlled fire.

“One of the most interesting characteristics of this site is the role it might have played in the mobility of the Neanderthals,” write Torcal and colleagues in a recent report. “The archaeological floors [of the] Neanderthals of La Roca dels Bous (La Noguera, Catalunya, Spain) had surprisingly few lithic artifacts and scarce animal remains. Layers of hearths with no apparent organization were discovered by the wall of the rock shelter. Fires appear repeatedly along the stratigraphic sequence and could be interpreted as resulting from ongoing short-term settlements. The combination of these factors suggests that small groups consistently chose La Roca dels Bous as a temporary shelter as they moved through wide areas, possibly following the migratory routes of their prey.”*

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Above and below: Overview of the Roca dels Bous rock shelter site. Courtesy Adrià Millán, Wikimedia Commons(above);
Courtesy CEPAP-UAB (below)

________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

View of an excavated hearth at the La Roca dels Bous rock shelter. Courtesy CEPA-UAB

________________________________________________________________________________________

But perhaps the most most interesting find of all related to the date of occupation. Several carbon-dating analyses using the ¹⁴C AMS dating technique on samples removed from the site indicated dates around 38,000 BP.

“The oldest Neanderthal sites known in the nearby areas date back to around 40,000 BP,” writes Torca, et al. “And the first settlements attributed to the “anatomically modern” Homo sapiens in Northern Spain are dated around 39,000-38,000 BP. All this would suggest that Neanderthals could have persisted in this particular area longer than previously believed, preceding the arrival of the first Homo sapiens [anatomically modern humans] to the area.”*

……..Or concurrent with them, as some scholars theorize. It has been suggested that modern humans appeared in what is today Europe around 40 – 50,000 years ago. Scientists point to research analyses of evidence recovered from excavations in the northern parts of the Iberian Peninsula, where artifacts dated to around 40,000 BP indicating an emerging new techno-tradition significantly different from that usually used by the Neanderthals. The new tradition, they theorize, was introduced by modern humans who may have arrived in Europe from the Eastern Mediterranean.

The research team hopes that, ultimately, the site will present new evidence that will shed additional light on an intensely debated topic: Did Neanderthal and modern human populations coexist in the area and did they interact with each other?

Excavations will continue at the site from June 6th to July 10th, 2014. Individuals interested in participating in the excavations may obtain aditional information at archaeoBarcelona.

_________________________________

* http://www.sha.org/documents/RocadelsBousArchaeologicalProject2014web.pdf

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Mother Nature’s Archaeology

Posted on January 21, 2014 by No Author -

She doesn’t conduct proper field archaeology like a trained archaeologist, but Mother Nature can sometimes help literally uncover the past, as demonstrated recently by melting glaciers in the Alps of northern Italy. Here, as glacier levels have receded, the corpses and other related artifacts of World War I soldiers have been revealed, uncovering more details of a dark chapter in military history. A Weather Channel video (see below), tells the story. Like the famous 5,000-year-old “Ice Man” named “Ötzi“, also found in the Alps on the border between Italy and Austria, nature’s invisible trowel can often provide the initial nudge for new discoveries and study.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archaeology News for the Week of January 19th, 2014

Posted on January 19, 2014 by No Author -

January 19th, 2014

Genome Study Reveals New Insight on Dog Domestication

The results of a recent study of canine genomes suggests that dogs and their wolf cousins share an evolutionary history that is considerably more complex than previously thought, pointing to a common ancestor that lived between 11,000 and 34,000 years ago and that the earliest dogs may have first lived among hunter-gatherer societies, before the advent of agriculture.
It challenges the popular theory that humans domesticated dogs around the time that they developed agriculture, and that dogs evolved from a single wolf population or group. (Popular Archaeology)

Bones From Human Sacrifice at Tenochtilan Ceremonial Complex

Fragments of human bones that exhibit cut marks and prolonged exposure to fire have been discovered through various excavations in the Sacred Precinct of Tenochtitlan (located in Mexico City). These skeletal remains are from individuals, such as children, slaves and captured warriors, who were sacrificed during religious festivals. (Past Horizons)

Archaeologists may have found remains of Alfred the Great

Archaeologists have identified a piece of bone they believe may have belonged to the English king Alfred the Great. The section of human pelvis, carbon-dated to within the lifetimes of Alfred the Great and his son Edward the Elder, has been found in Winchester, the first solid result in centuries of attempts to find the last resting place of one of the most famous English kings. (The Guardian)

Severed Heads Eaten by Dogs in Roman Times

Forensic techniques have shed light on the gruesome fate of dozens of people whose severed heads were thrown into open pits 2,000 years ago and left there to decompose. Excavated in the heart of London more than 25 years ago and dated to between 120 and 160 A.D., the skulls are believed to have belonged to defeated gladiators or victims of Roman soldiers’ practice of “headhunting,” in which heads of enemies were displayed as trophies. (Discovery News)

Ancient Sican tombs found in northern Peru

Archaeologists in Peru’s northern Lambayeque region have discovered an ancient cemetery with 35 tombs believed to be up to 1,000 years old. The tombs -containing skeletal remains, ceramics, textiles and gold-plated copper pieces- are thought to be of a pre-hispanic Sican descent. (Andina.com)

Earliest Use of Steel in Britain Identified at Scottish Hillfort

Archaeologists have identified examples of the earliest use of steel in the British Isles from a site in East Lothian. The site, an Iron Age hill fort known as Broxmouth, was excavated in the 1970s, however the discoveries are only now being published.
As part of the re-examination of the findings at Broxmouth, new analysis of some iron artefacts has found that they can be dated to 490-375BC. (Past Horizons)

Archaeologists discover ancient death chambers used for execution, torture in Bursa

Archaeological excavations that have been carried out in the northwestern province of Bursa have discovered 2,300-year-old dungeons used for execution and torturing during the Bithynia Kingdom era. Archaeologists discovered that the dungeons, which contain a “bloody well,” “torture chamber” and “corridors connected to tower,” used horrific execution methods. (Hurriyet Daily News)

Archaeologists uncover new pharaoh in Egypt

Archaeologists believe they have discovered the remains of a previously unknown pharaoh who reigned more than 3,600 years ago in Egypt. The skeleton of King Senebkay was uncovered at South Abydos in the province of Sohag, about 500 km south of Cairo, by a University of Pennsylvania expedition working with the government, the Egyptian antiquities ministry said. (Haaretz)

Well Preserved Iron Age Village Uncovered in Denmark

During evaluation of land prior to the construction of a new hospital in Aalborg, Northern Denmark, archaeologists uncovered an Iron Age village dating back around 2000 years. The settlement differs from other sites of this period because of its well preserved condition, including a number of houses complete with fireplaces, chalk floors and cobbled paving. (Past Horizons)

Bath tunnels of king’s daughters discovered under Turkey’s second largest castle

Two secret tunnels have been discovered under Turkey’s second largest castle, in the northern province of Tokat’s Niksar district. The tunnels date back to the Roman period, and it has been claimed that one of the tunnels was used by a Roman king’s daughters in order to go to the bath in the Çanakçi stream area. (Hurriyet Daily News)

Genome Study Reveals New Insight on Dog Domestication

Posted on January 16, 2014 by No Author -

It challenges the popular theory that humans domesticated dogs around the time that they developed agriculture, and that dogs evolved from a single wolf population or group.

The study, led by Adam Freedman, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), published in PLoS Genetics on January 16, 2014, also indicates that dogs are more closely related to each other than they are to wolves, suggesting that some of the genetic overlap observed between some modern dogs and modern wolves is more likely the result of interbreeding after dog domestication.

“Dog domestication is more complex than we originally thought,” said John Novembre, associate professor in the Department of Human Genetics at the University of Chicago and co-author of the study. “In this analysis we didn’t see clear evidence in favor of a multi-regional model, or a single origin from one of the living wolves that we sampled. It makes the field of dog domestication very intriguing going forward.”

To get to these conclusions, the research team constructed high quality genome sequences from three gray wolves: one each from China, Croatia and Israel, regions where dogs are thought to have originated. They also produced genomes from two modern dog breeds: a basenji, a breed which originates in central Africa, and a dingo from Australia, both areas that have been historically isolated from modern wolf populations. In addition to the wolves and dogs, they sequenced the genome of a golden jackal to serve as an “outgroup” representing earlier divergence.

Their analysis of the basenji and dingo genomes, plus a previously published boxer genome from Europe, showed that the dog breeds were most closely related to each other. Likewise, the three wolves from each geographic area were more closely related to each other than any of the dogs. This seems to be true regardless of geographic proximity between the dog breeds and their wolf counterparts. It suggests that, according to Novembre, both dogs and wolves were descended from an older, wolf-like ancestor common to both species. It raises the possibility that there were other, now extinct, wolf lineages from which the ancestors of the modern dogs diverged.

“So now when you ask which wolves are dogs most closely related to,” he says, “it’s none of these three because these are wolves that diverged in the recent past. It’s something more ancient that isn’t well represented by today’s wolves.”

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Graphic from the study depicting how wolf and dog lineages diverged over time. Credit: Freedma, et al / PLoS Genetics

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Accounting for gene flow between dogs and wolves after domestication was a crucial step in the analyses. According to Freedman, gene flow across canid species appears more pervasive than previously thought.

“If you don’t explicitly consider such exchanges, these admixture events get confounded with shared ancestry,” he said. “We also found evidence for genetic exchange between wolves and jackals. The picture emerging from our analyses is that these exchanges may play an important role in shaping the diversification of canid species.”

Domestication apparently occurred with significant bottlenecks in the historical population sizes of both early dogs and wolves. Freedman and his colleagues were able to infer historical sizes of dog and wolf populations by analyzing genome-wide patterns of variation, showing that dogs suffered a 16-fold reduction in population size as they diverged from wolves. Wolves also experienced a sharp drop in population size soon after their divergence from dogs, implying that diversity among both animals’ common ancestors was larger than represented by modern wolves.

The researchers also found differences across dog breeds and wolves in the number of amylase (AMY2B) genes that help digest starch. Recent studies have suggested that this gene was critical to domestication, allowing early dogs living near humans to adapt to an agricultural diet. But the research team surveyed genetic data from 12 additional dog breeds and saw that while most dog breeds had high numbers of amylase genes, those not associated with agrarian societies, like the Siberian husky and dingo, did not. They also saw evidence of this gene family in wolves, meaning that it didn’t develop exclusively in dogs after the two species diverged, and may have expanded more recently after domestication.

“We’re trying to get every thread of evidence we can to reconstruct the past,” said Novembre. “We use genetics to reconstruct the history of population sizes, relationships among populations and the gene flow that occurred. So now we have a much more detailed picture than existed before, and it’s a somewhat surprising picture.”

________________________

Robert Wayne, professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at UCLA, was co-senior author of the study.

Additional authors include Rena Schweizer, Diego Ortega-Del Vecchyo, Eunjung Han, Farhad Hormozdiari, Kevin Squire and Stanley Nelson from UCLA; Ilan Gronau, Adam Boyko and Adam Siepel from Cornell Univesity; Pedro Silva from University of Porto, Portugal; Marco Galaverni from Ozzano dell’Emilia, Italy; Zhenxin Fan from Sichuan University, China; Peter Marx from Budapest University, Hungary; Belen Lorente-Galdos, Oscar Ramirez and Tomas Marques-Bonet from the Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC – Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Spain; Holly Beale, Heidi Parker and Elaine Ostrander from the National Institutes of Health; Can Alkan from Bilkent University, Turkey; Carles Vila from Estacion Biologia de Doñana, Spain; Eli Geffen from Tel Aviv University, Israel; Josip Kusak from the University of Zagreb, Croatia; Clarence Lee, Vasisht Tadigotla and Timothy Harkins from Life Technologies; and Carlos Bustamante from Stanford University.

The National Science Foundation and Life Technologies provided funding and reagents.

Article Source: Adapted and edited from a University of Chicago Medical Center press release.

Cover Photo, Top Left: Gray Wolf, USFWS Endangered Species, Wikimedia Commons cc-by-2.0

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archaeologists Return to Ancient City of Lachish

Posted on January 15, 2014 by No Author -

According to the Biblical account, the ancient fortified city of Lachish was for a time considered, after Jerusalem, the second-most important city in the Kingdom of Judah. Today, its ruins can be seen atop a prominent “tel” or mound located in the Shephelah lowland of Israel between Mount Hebron and the maritime Mediterranean coast. The remains are a visible reminder of a city that represented a strength and glory ravaged through the military designs of advancing Assyrian and Babylonian armies long before the ancient Romans ever set foot in this country. It is best known as the location of a great siege by Assyrian king Sennacherib in 701 B.C.E.

Today, this city may sit again in the cross-hairs of a different kind of battle — one that revolves around the debate concerning the nature and historicity of the early Kingdom of Judah. Prof. Yosef Garfinkel, the Yigael Yadin Chair of archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, stands at the center of the debate. His headline-making discoveries at the site of Khirbet Qeiyafa, which included, most notably, a massive monumental fortified casemate wall and two city gates, the famous inscribed ostracon that arguably represents the longest Proto-Canaanite text ever found, and the remains of a palatial structure and pillared store room, all suggested to date to the time of the Biblical King David and attributed to his kingdom, have drawn criticism from other scholars who contend that David and Solomon and the kingdom they ruled may not have been the larger-than-life entities that are depicted in the Biblical accounts. Now, in part to address some of the arguments, issues and interpretations swirling within this debate, Garfinkel and colleagues are heading a new team that will begin re-exploring and excavating Lachish in 2014. It is a site that has already been the subject of several historic excavation expeditions but, as is common with many archaeolgical sites, remains unfinished business. And within the context of acquiring a better understanding of the early Judahite State, they are drawing a research connection between their completed excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa and re-newed excavations at Lachish.

“The results from Khirbet Qeiyafa, together with the results from Lachish,” write Garfinkel and colleagues in a recent article published in Biblical Archaeology Review, “will enable us to obtain a clearer and more complete picture of the early history of the kingdom of Judah in the tenth and ninth centuries B.C.E. We view these two excavations as one regional Project.”*

__________________________________________________________________________________________

View of the western gate at Khirbet Qeiyafa, excavated under the direction of Yosef Garfinkel. Yaels, Wikimedia Commons

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

View of some of the ancient excavated remains of Lachish as they appear today. Pikiwiki Israel

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Inscription on the Assyrian Lachish Reliefs. Left hand side states: “”Sennacherib, the mighty king, king of the country of Assyria, sitting on the throne of judgment, before (or at the entrance of) the city of Lachish (Lakhisha). I give permission for its slaughter,” per “Discoveries Among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon”, p 128. Oncenawhile, Wikimedia Commons

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Past excavations at Lachish have revealed a city that was occupied from the Pottery Neolithic (5500–4500 B.C.E.) period to the 2nd century B.C.E. Key finds have included abundant evidence of the Assyrian siege, a number of ostraca inscribed in classical Hebrew, and the largest collection of LMLK seals, seal stamps on jar handles attributed to the reign of Hezekiah, King of Judah in the 8th – 7th century B.C.E.

“The current expedition will concentrate on the 10th–9th centuries B.C.E. and we’ll try to answer questions like: When was Lachish inhabited for the first time in the Iron Age [1200 – 500 B.C.E.]? When was Lachish first fortified in the Iron Age? How did the economy, administration, international connections, writing, cult and art develop in the first 200 years of the Kingdom of Judah? We will also examine the connection between archaeology and the Biblical narrative of the tenth century B.C.E.”**

Garfinkel, along with co-directors Michael G. Hasel and Martin G. Klingbeil of Southern Adventist University, hope to begin excavations with a team of other specialists, students and volunteers in June of 2014. More information about the expedition and how one can participate can be obtained at this website.

____________________

See the detailed article related to this development, published by Bibilical Archaeology Society, here.

___________________________

*Garfinkel, et al., An Ending and a Beginning: Why We’re Leaving Qeiyafa and Going to Lachish, Biblical Archaeology Review, November/December 2013, Vol 39 No 6, pp. 50 – 51.

**http://digs.bib-arch.org/digs/tel-lachish.asp

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archaeologists Discover Rare Ancient Maya Mural in Belize

Posted on January 12, 2014 by No Author -

Known as Tulix Mul, it appears at first blush as a mound-like island of jumbled trees and bushes jutting out of a landscape that has been otherwise cleared by local mechanized ranchers for their cattle ranch operations. It is a curious protrusion, but only because this site holds special value to archaeologists and other researchers. The local landowner ranchers have agreed to leave it untouched — at least for now. Going forward, however, there are no guarantees. Development must ultimately meet the needs of developers. In the meantime, investigators are racing against the clock and other elements to excavate, study, and preserve the site. It is an ancient Early Classic (200-600 CE) Maya site in northwestern Belize that contains evidence of at least two standing vaulted rooms.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

View of Tulix Mul from the south. Courtesy Maya Research Program

__________________________________________________________________________________________

As a relatively recent discovery, archaeologists, under the auspices of the Maya Research Program (MRP), and the University of Texas at Tyler, have been excavating at the site since 2012. It has been identified as a shrine group approximately 1 km. from Nojol Nah, another severely endangered Maya center where they have been excavating. In 2013, they focused on a structure (designated “Structure 2” on their site plan) that showed intrusion by a looter’s trench. Excavation revealed evidence of a vaulted room.

“Our goal in 2013 was to strip the final phase of architecture from the eastern facade of this Early Classic structure in order to document its abandonment [in Late Classic times, or 600 – 900 CE] and to penetrate the centerline of the structure *so its various phases of construction could be recorded,” said Colleen Hanratty, a member of the Board of Directors of MRP and a leading, long-time researcher and field archaeologist with the organization. “In addition, a looter’s trench on the western side of the structure was cleared out in order to document the architecture therein. While clearing out the looter’s trench, it was revealed that the vaulted room was intact and had been filled in by the ancient Maya. We could see spots of intact plaster on the walls, which was very exciting. But we had to be patient. We continued to focus our energy on the eastern facade of the structure and soon discovered that it was actually an Early Classic roomblock that apparently had been filled in at the beginning of the Late Classic time period. We carefully removed the construction fill and were thrilled to discover additional plaster adhering to the room’s western wall and bench.”

Discovery of a plastered vaulted room was news enough. But by far the biggest prize was found beneath the plaster. Through time, small fragments had exfoliated from the plaster, revealing underlying evidence of a polychrome, fine-line mural. The mural style appeared generally similar to that found years before by other archaeologists at San Bartolo in Guatemala. Like San Bartolo, there are only a few other known Maya murals found in Central America. Aside from their artistic beauty, each has provided significant new information about Maya art, religious concepts, trade and interaction. The Tulix Mul mural may prove to be equally informative, especially as the site investigators suspect that “there is a real likelihood that the other room [still unexcavated] will also contain a mural.”*

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Above and below, exterior of Structure 2 emerges through painstaking excavation of its eastern side. Courtesy Maya Research Program.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

The looters trench on the western side. Courtesy Maya Research Program

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The vaulted room as it appeared before the fill was removed. Courtesy Maya Research Program

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Above and below: View into the vaulted room, now excavated, containing the mural (currently still mostly plasted over by the ancients). Courtesy Maya Research Program

__________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

For now, not enough of the mural has been exposed to determine what is depicted (see image below). Archaeologists are moving forward with a sense of urgency to ensure that a fuller view of the mural (or murals, as the case may be), will see the light of day. In 2014, the archaeological team, under the professional leadership of Thomas Guderjan of the University of Texas at Tyler, conservator Pieta Greaves of AOC Archaeology, Scotland, and Gail Hammond of University College London, will methodically and painstakingly remove the plaster overcoating from the mural to reveal the rest. Other specialized members of the team will document and interpret the mural as it is exposed. The same will be done for any additional mural finds as the team progresses to uncover the other vaulted room.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Closeup detail view of mural thus far exposed. Courtesy Maya Research Program

_________________________________________________________________________________________

But the team will be working under a shadow of uncertainty.

“Several threats to the site exist,” says Guderjan. “First, the property is owned by a mechanized farming and ranching concern which often exhibits resistance to legalities. Legal protections exist but may not be followed and enforcement is difficult and generally non-existent until after the fact. Good relations exist today but cannot be guaranteed in the long run. The only solution to this problem is to purchase the site and put it into public hands. Second, the site is remote and therefore looting could occur unseen. Further, it is an obvious mott of trees on the landscape and easily found. There is also risk of damage by casual visitors so physical security of the mural must be achieved. Such security must also take into account the need to protect the mural from environmental degradation.”*

Some good news has brightened the horizon for the site. Recently, the Archaeological Institute of America has approved a generous grant to help conserve and record the site, including the development of an educational outreach program that will benefit not only the visiting public but also members of the local community. In terms of protection and preservation, the team plans to “include the construction of a sealed door enabling the mural to remain in a cave-like controlled temperature and humidity setting that also restricts access from intruders.”*

_____________________

The Long Term: Saving Tulix Mul

The team leadership has been in negotiations to purchase the site, including its larger companion site of Nojol Nah, a medium-sized Late Preclassic (400 BCE-200 CE)/Early Classic(200-600 CE) Maya center that includes evidence of a public precinct with a pyramidal structure, elite residential structures, and numerous burials. The research stakeholders maintain that purchasing the sites will mean greater control of them for preservation, conservation, study, and heritage education, and will decrease the likelihood of impending destruction due to expanding agricultural operations.

To help facilitate these efforts, the MRP, in collaboration with Popular Archaeology Magazine, has launched a fund-raising campaign through the magazine’s Adopt-a-Site program to acquire the necessary funds to purchase up to 100 acres to protect Nojol Nah, its outlying component of Tulix Mul, and other sites in the area.

For interested readers, see the website for more information about the Maya Research Program, and Adopt-a-Site for more information about the donation program.

_________________________

*Interview with Thomas Guderjan and Colleen Hanratty of the Maya Research Program.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archaeology News for the Week of January 12th, 2014

Posted on January 12, 2014 by No Author -

January 12th, 2014

Archaeologists Discover Rare Ancient Maya Mural in Belize

Known as Tulix Mul, it appears at first blush as a mound-like island of jumbled trees and bushes jutting out of a landscape that has been otherwise cleared by local mechanized ranchers for their cattle ranch operations. It is a curious protrusion, but only because this site holds special value to archaeologists and other researchers. The local landowner ranchers have agreed to leave it untouched — at least for now. Going forward, however, there are no guarantees. Development must ultimately meet the needs of developers. In the meantime, investigators are racing against the clock and other elements to excavate, study, and preserve the site. It is an ancient Early Classic (200-600 CE) Maya site in northwestern Belize that contains evidence of at least two standing vaulted rooms. (Popular Archaeology)

There She Blew! Volcanic Evidence Of The World’s First Map

A new study of volcanic rocks suggests that an ancient mural may indeed depict an erupting volcano, adding new weight to a theory that this image is a contender for the world’s oldest known landscape painting or map. The mural was found at a vast archaeological site in central Turkey known as Catalhoyuk. This Neolithic town goes back 9,000 years and was a huge settlement for a time when people were first transitioning from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies. (NPR)

Searching for the Amazon’s Hidden Civilizations

Look around the Amazon rainforest today and it’s hard to imagine it filled with people. But in recent decades, archaeologists have started to find evidence that before Columbus’s arrival, the region was dotted with towns and perhaps even cities. The extent of human settlement in the Amazon remains hotly debated, partly because huge swaths of the 6-million-square-kilometer rainforest remain unstudied by archaeologists. Now, researchers have built a model predicting where signs of pre-Columbian agriculture are most likely to be found, a tool they hope will help guide future archaeological work in the region. (Science)

Rare Gaming Piece Found at Anglo-Saxon Royal Hall

University of Reading archaeologists have discovered an ancient and extremely rare Anglo-Saxon board gaming piece while excavating a royal complex at Lyminge, Kent. The piece would have been used for a game similar to that of backgammon or draughts. The Anglo-Saxon’s had a strong tradition of playing board games. Individual gaming pieces, and sometimes complete sets in burials of the period, have been discovered. However not only is the piece the first of this type to be found since the Victorian period, it is the first ever piece to be discovered in a ‘gaming’ setting, an Anglo-Saxon royal hall. (Past Horizons)

Mexican archaeologists pinpoint origin of Aztatlan ceramics

Archaeological finds in the southern part of the western state of Sinaloa suggest that the culture that developed in that region gave rise to the ceramics at the Aztatlan Complex, Mexico’s National Anthropology and History Institute, or INAH, said. (Global Post)

Mapping the Origins of Cholera

Working with a nearly 200-year-old sample of preserved intestine, researchers at McMaster University and the University of Sydney have traced the bacterium behind a global cholera pandemic that killed millions – a version of the same bug that continues to strike vulnerable populations in the world’s poorest regions. Using sophisticated techniques, the team has mapped the entire genome of the elusive 19th century bacterium. (Past Horizons)

How a hunch led Nepalese archaeologist Kosh Prasad Acharya to stunning claim on Buddha birth date

Two archaeologists had a hunch that the Buddha’s birthplace in southern Nepal held secrets that could transform how the world understood the emergence and spread of Buddhism. Their pursuit would eventually see them excavate the sacred site of Lumbini as monks prayed nearby, leading to the stunning claim that the Buddha was born in the sixth century BC, two centuries earlier than thought. (ArtDaily.org)

American team identifies tomb of obscure Egyptian king

A team of American archaeologists this week identified the tomb of a hitherto obscure Egyptian king, Sobekhotep I, believed to be the founder of the 13th Dynasty. The 60-ton pink quartzite sarcophagus was unearthed last year, but the University of Pennsylvania team only managed to decipher the royal inscription on the stone at the beginning of 2014. Little is known about the 13th Dynasty’s rulers. (The Times of Israel)

Remains of 2,000-year-old woman found under South Florida road

Archeologists say a significant prehistoric find was made outside a quiet Florida neighborhood just before Christmas: a woman’s remains perfectly preserved for 2,000 years. A few weeks ago as construction crews were digging a trench for a water main along a busy road, they made a fascinating find in Davie, Fla. “We uncovered the remains of an Indian woman,” said Bob Carr, director of Archaeological and Historical Conservancy. “Prehistoric dating back 2,000 years.” (Ksat.com)

New Iron Age Sites Discovered in Finland

Posted on January 10, 2014 by No Author -

It was in the autumn of 2010 when local amateur archaeologists discovered evidence of harbor facilities thought to date from around 1000–1200 AD near Ahvenkoski village at the mouth of the western branch of the Kymi River in southeastern Finland. The findings included a smithy, an iron smelting furnace, and forceps, as well as hundreds of iron objects such as boat rivets similar to those found at Viking settlements in different parts of the Baltic, Scandinavia, Scotland and Iceland. Then, in 2011, a possible 2 x 3-meter-wide cremation grave was uncovered, confirmed later through rescue excavations by archaeologists from the Finnish National Board of Antiquities and through osteological analysis at the University of Helsinki. Artifacts included a battle axe, a knife, and a bronze buckle, all associated with burned human bones, initially thought to be dated to around 1000 – 1200 CE before analysis. Similar objects have been discovered in the Baltic Sea area and in Ladoga Karelia. Identical cape buckles have also been found in Gotland.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Location of the excavations (blocked in red). Courtesy Jouni Jäppinen

_________________________________________________________________________________________

A National Board of Antiquities archaeologist excavates at the Ahvenkoski harbor forge. The furnace was located between two stones, and in the ground one can see dark gray iron slag pieces. Image courtesy Jouni Jäppinen.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

But based on the University of Helsinki analysis, the cremation grave finds date to a time that is significantly earlier — during the Viking Age between 775-980 CE, based on their application of AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) techniques.

“The dating results show that the pyres burned about 895cal CE, not during the Crusader period,” says Jouni Jäppinen, a key participant in the excavations. “So, now we are talking about a Viking Age harbor baseline in the Kymi River delta.” Other results indicate that the harbor facilities were used from the Viking Age to the end of the Middle Ages, for as long as 500 – 600 years. Jäppinen and colleagues hypothesize that the harbor could have been a part of the Gotland or Danish operating range during the Viking Age, then after the year 1200 in use by Bishop Hemming of Turku, and beginning about 1350 as an Estonian monastery’s salmon export center.

But perhaps the most eye-opening finds come from a number of sites located in the area between the towns of Loviisa and Pyhtää near the northeastern shores of the Gulf of Finland, not far from the Ahvenkoski harbor discoveries. There, they have located as many as twenty possible Roman Iron Age sites, with closer examination of ten. Of those more closely investigated, five revealed evidence of what the excavators interpret as early iron smelting furnaces and smithies. Two of the furnaces have been dated using AMS to between 204 BCE and 180 CE, within the Roman Iron Age period, but test results are still pending on analysis of iron slag deposits sampled from the sites.

“Some of the objects found also relate to the Migration Period and Viking Age activity in the Kymi River area,” says Jäppinen, “such as a casted bronze ”triangle legs buckle”, which is the first artifact found from the Migration Period in southeastern Finland. Other artifacts are from the Roman Iron Age, and indicate a connection with Estonia and also Sweden. However, based on the asbestos ceramics found, there also appear to be connections to the inlands of Finland through the rivers.”

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Migration Period bronze buckle. Courtesy Jouni Jäppinen

________________________________________________________________________________________

Roman Iron Age razor. Courtesy Jouni Jäppinen

_________________________________________________________________________________________

“These discoveries will change the prevailing view about Iron Age settlements on the eastern parts of the Gulf of Finland,” says Jäppinen. Until now, this part of Finland was thought to be devoid of human settlement during that time period.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

The Ancient Human Hunter Changed the World

Posted on January 9, 2014 by No Author -

It could be argued by archaeologists and anthropologists alike that when ancient humans became efficient and effective hunters tens of thousands of years ago, it started a stone rolling, in both an evolutionary and ecological sense, that changed the world forever. Now, the descendants of these ancient hunters can make another difference, but time could be running out………

CORVALLIS, Ore. – In ecosystems around the world, the decline of large predators such as lions, dingoes, wolves, otters, and bears is changing the face of landscapes from the tropics to the Arctic – but an analysis of 31 carnivore species published today in the journal Science shows for the first time how threats such as habitat loss, persecution by humans and loss of prey combine to create global hotspots of carnivore decline.

More than 75 percent of the 31 large-carnivore species are declining, and 17 species now occupy less than half of their former ranges, the authors reported.

Southeast Asia, southern and East Africa and the Amazon are among areas in which multiple large carnivore species are declining. With some exceptions, large carnivores have already been exterminated from much of the developed world, including Western Europe and the eastern United States.

“Globally, we are losing our large carnivores,” said William Ripple, lead author of the paper and a professor in the Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society at Oregon State University.

“Many of them are endangered,” he said. “Their ranges are collapsing. Many of these animals are at risk of extinction, either locally or globally. And, ironically, they are vanishing just as we are learning about their important ecological effects.”

Ripple and colleagues from the United States, Australia, Italy and Sweden called for an international initiative to conserve large predators in coexistence with people. They suggested that such an effort be modeled on the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe, a nonprofit scientific group affiliated with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

The researchers reviewed published scientific reports and singled out seven species that have been studied for their widespread ecological effects or “trophic cascades.” This includes African lions, leopards, Eurasian lynx, cougars, gray wolves, sea otters and dingoes.

Ripple and his Oregon State co-author Robert Beschta have documented impacts of cougars and wolves on the regeneration of forest stands and riparian vegetation in Yellowstone and other national parks in North America. Fewer predators, they have found, lead to an increase in browsing animals such as deer and elk. More browsing disrupts vegetation, shifts birds and small mammals and changes other parts of the ecosystem in a widespread cascade of impacts.

Studies of Eurasian lynx, dingoes, lions and sea otters have found similar effects, the authors reported.

Lynx have been closely tied to the abundance of roe deer, red fox and hare. In Australia, the construction of a 3,400-mile dingo-proof fence has enabled scientists to study ecosystems with and without the animals, which are closely related to gray wolves. In some parts of Africa, the decrease of lions and leopards has coincided with a dramatic increase in olive baboons, which threaten farm crops and livestock. In the waters off southeast Alaska, a decline in sea otters through killer whale predation has led to a rise in sea urchins and loss of kelp beds.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Leopards, an important predator, are in serious decline. Credit: Photo by Kirstin Abley. Courtesy Oregon State University

_________________________________________________________________________________________

The authors call for a deeper understanding of the impact of large carnivores on ecosystems, a view that they trace back to the work of landmark ecologist Aldo Leopold. The classic concept that predators are harmful and deplete fish and wildlife is outdated, they said. Scientists and wildlife managers need to recognize a growing body of evidence for the complex roles that carnivores play in ecosystems and for their social and economic benefits.

Leopold recognized such relationships between predators and ecosystems, Ripple said, but his observations on that point were largely ignored for decades after his death in 1948.

“Human tolerance of these species is a major issue for conservation,” Ripple said. “We say these animals have an intrinsic right to exist, but they are also providing economic and ecological services that people value.”

Among the services that have been documented in other studies are carbon sequestration, riparian restoration, biodiversity and disease control.

Where large carnivores have been restored — such as wolves in Yellowstone or Eurasian lynx in Finland — ecosystems have responded quickly, said Ripple. “I am impressed with how resilient the Yellowstone ecosystem is. It isn’t happening quickly everywhere, but in some places, ecosystem restoration has started there.”

In those cases, where loss of vegetation has led to soil erosion, for example, full restoration in the near term may not be possible, he said.

“Nature is highly interconnected,” said Ripple. “The work at Yellowstone and other places shows how one species affects another and another through different pathways. It’s humbling as a scientist to see the interconnectedness of nature.”

Cover Photo, Top Left: Wolves are one of the important large predators that are disappearing and causing ecological disruption as a result. Credit: Photo by Doug McLaughlin. Courtesy Oregon State University.

Source: Oregon State University Press Release.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

2-Million-Year-Old Human Relative ‘Nutcracker Man’ Lived Mostly on Grass Bulbs

Posted on January 8, 2014 by No Author -

An Oxford University study has concluded that our ancient ancestors who lived in East Africa between 2.4 million-1.4 million years ago survived mainly on a diet of tiger nuts. Tiger nuts are edible grass bulbs still eaten in parts of the world today. The study published in the journal, PLOS ONE, also suggests that these early hominins may have sought additional nourishment from fruits and invertebrates, like worms and grasshoppers.

Study author Dr Gabriele Macho examined the diet of Paranthropus boisei, nicknamed “Nutcracker Man” because of his big flat molar teeth and powerful jaws, through studying modern-day baboons in Kenya. Her findings help to explain a puzzle that has vexed archaeologists for 50 years.

Scholars have debated why this early human relative had such strong jaws, indicating a diet of hard foods like nuts, yet their teeth seemed to be made for consuming soft foods. Damage to the tooth enamel also indicated they had come into contact with an abrasive substance. Previous research using stable isotope analyses suggests the diet of these homimins was largely comprised of C4 plants like grasses and sedges. However, a debate has raged over whether such high-fibre foods could ever be of sufficiently high quality for a large-brained, medium-sized hominin.

Dr Macho’s study finds that baboons today eat large quantities of C4 tiger nuts, and this food would have contained sufficiently high amounts of minerals, vitamins, and the fatty acids that would have been particularly important for the hominin brain. Her finding is grounded in existing data that details the diet of year-old baboons in Amboseli National Park in Kenya – a similar environment to that once inhabited by Paranthropus boisei. Dr Macho’s study is based on the assumption that baboons intuitively select food according to their needs. She concludes that the nutritional demands of a hominin would have been quite similar.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Landscape at the Amboseli National Park (with baboons). The landscape inhabited by Paranthropus boisei was very similar. Image courtesy Gabriele Macho.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Dr Macho modified the findings of the previous study on baboons by Stuart Altmann (1998) on how long it took the year-old baboons to dig up tiger nuts and feed on various C4 sources. She calculated the likely time taken by hominins, suggesting that it would be at least twice that of the yearling baboons once their superior manual dexterity was taken into account. Dr Macho also factored in the likely calorie intake that would be needed by a big-brained human relative.

Tiger nuts, which are rich in starches, are highly abrasive in an unheated state. Dr Macho suggests that hominins’ teeth suffered abrasion and wear and tear due to these starches. The study finds that baboons’ teeth have similar marks giving clues about their pattern of consumption.

In order to digest the tiger nuts and allow the enzymes in the saliva to break down the starches, the hominins would need to chew the tiger nuts for a long time. All this chewing put considerable strain on the jaws and teeth, which explains why “Nutcracker Man” had such a distinctive cranial anatomy.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Skull of ‘Nutcracker Man’ or Paranthropus boisei. This image is of Olduvai Hominid 5 (OH 5), the most famous of the early human fossils found at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Image courtesy Donald C Johanson.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Palate and maxillary teeth of Paranthropus boisei (OH 5). Image courtesy Donald C Johanson.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

The Oxford study calculates a hominin could extract sufficient nutrients from a tiger nut- based diet, i.e. around 10,000 kilojoules or 2,000 calories a day – or 80% of their required daily calorie intake, in two and half to three hours. This fits comfortably within the foraging time of five to six hours per day typical for a large-bodied primate.

Dr Macho, from the School of Archaeology at Oxford University, said: ‘I believe that the theory – that “Nutcracker Man” lived on large amounts of tiger nuts– helps settle the debate about what our early human ancestor ate. On the basis of recent isotope results, these hominins appear to have survived on a diet of C4 foods, which suggests grasses and sedges. Yet these are not high quality foods. What this research tells us is that hominins were selective about the part of the grass that they ate, choosing the grass bulbs at the base of the grass blade as the mainstay of their diet.

‘Tiger nuts, still sold in health food shops as well as being widely used for grinding down and baking in many countries, would be relatively easy to find. They also provided a good source of nourishment for a medium-sized hominin with a large brain. This is why these hominins were able to survive for around one million years because they could successfully forage – even through periods of climatic change.’

___________________

Source: University of Oxford Press Release

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Neolithic Mural in Turkey May Illustrate Ancient Volcanic Eruption

Posted on January 8, 2014 by No Author -

First discovered and excavated in the 1960’s by British archaeologist James Mellaart, the world-famous 9,000-year-old Neolithic site of Catälhöyuk in Central Anatolia, Turkey, has provided a unique window on the lives of humans at the transition from hunter-gatherer to settled agriculture societies. Among the spectacular finds was a mural or wall-painting dated to about 6600 BCE and described by its discoverer and others as depicting a volcanic eruption. Arguably regarded as the first map or graphical representation of a landscape, it featured “a rendering of a mountain with two peaks with the cell-like patterns representing a plan view of a village with a general layout of the houses similar to that of Catälhöyuk and other nearby Neolithic settlements”……”with the summit region showing ‘‘falling volcanic ‘bombs’ or large semiliquid lava.’’*

This description or interpretation has been contested, however, as critics have maintained that there has been little or no geologic evidence for an explosive volcanic eruption in the area contemporaneous with the age of the site, and other scholars have descibed the painting as representing a “leopard skin with its extremities cut off”.*

Now, new volcanic rock dating suggests the mural date may have overlapped with the date of an eruption from the nearby Hasan Dagi volcano. Led by Axel Schmitt from the University of California Los Angeles and colleagues from other institutions, an international team of scientists analyzed rocks from the nearby Hasan Dagi volcano in order to determine whether it was the volcano depicted in the mural from ~6600 BC. To determine if Hasan Dagi was active during that time, scientists collected and analyzed volcanic rock samples from the summit and flanks of the Hasan Dagi volcano using (U-Th)/He zircon geochronology. This resulted in the first radiometric ages for a Holocene volcanic eruption in the area. The ages were then compared to the archaeological date of the mural.

They found that volcanic rock textures and ages support the interpretation that residents of Çatalhöyük may have recorded an explosive eruption of Hasan Dagi volcano. The dating of the volcanic rock indicated an eruption around 6900 BC, which closely overlaps with the time the mural was estimated to have been painted in Çatalhöyük. The overlapping timeframes thus indicate humans in the region may have witnessed this eruption.

Says Schmitt, “We tested the hypothesis that the Çatalhöyük mural depicts a volcanic eruption and discovered a geological record consistent with this hypothesis. Our work also demonstrates that Hasan Dagi volcano has potential for future eruptions.”

The sudy results are published in detail in the January 8, 2014, open access journal PLOS ONE.

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Excavations at Çatalhöyük first began under James Mellaart in 1958 and were later renewed under Ian Hodder in 1993. Ziggurat, Wikimedia Commons

__________________________

*Schmitt AK, Danišík M, Aydar E, Şen E, Ulusoy İ, et al. (2014) Identifying the Volcanic Eruption Depicted in a Neolithic Painting at Çatalhöyük, Central Anatolia, Turkey. PLoS ONE 9(1): e84711. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084711

Partial support for this study comes from NSF EAR 1029193 “Facility Support: The UCLA National Ion Microprobe”. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. No additional external funding was received for this study.

Cover Photo, Top Left: The Hasan Dagi volcano. Credit: Janet C. Harvey

Source: Adaped and edited from a press release for the Public Library of Science and relevant excerpts from the detailed study cited above.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Ardi Has Some Human-like Skull Traits, Say Researchers

Posted on January 6, 2014 by No Author -

A new study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), may strengthen the argument for an evolutionary link between Ardipithecus ramidus (nicknamed ‘Ardi’ for short), a 4.4 million-year-old hominoid species that featured a brain about the size of a chimpanzee but locomotor behavior that may have included both walking upright on the ground and a life in the trees, and humans. A hominoid is a type of animal belonging to the superfamily Hominoidea, consisting of both apes and humans.

Ardipithecus ramidus, now long extinct, is the biological species name given to fossils first discovered in 1992 by a research team led by Tim White. Exploring the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia, they found seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones. Later, additional fragments were recovered in 1994. The pelvis remains of Ardi, which were found in a crushed state, were analyzed and interpreted to be shorter and broader than an ape’s — more like that of a human or Australopithecus, indicating that she was bipedal, able to walk upright. White and colleagues initially classified it as belonging to Australopithecus, a more human-like genus thought to be ancestral to humans, but later renamed the fossil finds under a new genus, Ardipithecus. Then, between 1999 and 2003, another team led by Sileshi Semaw discovered fossils of nine A. ramidus individuals at As Duma in the Gona Western Margin of Ethiopia’s Afar Region. These fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old. Questions surrounding how this species is related to human ancestors have been long debated, with many scholars suggesting it represents evidence of homoplasy, or independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages. In the case of Ardi, the homoplasy adherents have pointed out that certain aspects of the foot and pelvis which are strongly indicative of arboreal locomotion (life in the trees, like other primates), suggest that this species may instead “exemplify parallel evolution of human-like traits among apes around the time of the chimpanzee-human split”.*

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Ardipithecus ramidus („Ardi“), complete skeleton. Own drawn remake of p.36, “Science” of 2nd October 2009. Tobias Fluegel, Wikimedia Commons

_________________________________________________________________________________________

A map with the fossil sites of the earliest hominids and hominoids, from 35.8 M BP until 3.3 M BP.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Now, an international team of scientists, including study authors William H. Kimbel of Arizona State University and Tim D. White of the University of California, Berkely, report that key morphological aspects of the base of the Ardi skull (the basicranium) indicates affinities to that of the Australopithecines and early Homo, supporting the hypothesis that Ardi had a closer relationship to humans than the homoplasy supporters suggest. Report the study authors:

“Our investigation of the basicranium shows that Ar. ramidus shares with Australopithecus and Homo a relatively short, broad central cranial base and related modifications of the tympanic, petrous, and basioccipital elements. These similarities support the proposed relationship of Ar. ramidus to Australopithecus + Homo. Reorganization of the central basicranium is among the earliest morphological attributes of this group.”*

The researchers came to this conclusion after analyzing the length and breadth of the external cranial base of the skull, including the temporal bone , of the best-preserved basicranial specimen of Ardi and similar samples from Australopithecines, chimpanzees, bonobos, and modern humans.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Ardipithecus cranium image. Michael Keesey, Wikimedia Commons

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Other key researchers and study authors included Gen Suwa of the University of Tokyo, Berhane Asfaw of the Rift Valley Research Service, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Yoel Rak of Tel Aviv University and Arizona State University.

________________________

*Article #13-22639: “Ardipithecus ramidus and the evolution of the human cranial base,” by William H. Kimbel et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Researchers Uncover Surprising Diets of the Middle and Lower Class in Pompeii

Posted on January 2, 2014 by No Author -

University of Cincinnati archaeologists are turning up discoveries in the famed Roman city of Pompeii that are wiping out the historic perceptions of how the Romans dined, with the rich enjoying delicacies such as flamingos and the poor scrounging for soup or gruel.

Steven Ellis, a University of Cincinnati associate professor of classics, will present these discoveries on Jan. 4, at the joint annual meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) and American Philological Association (APA) in Chicago.

UC teams of archaeologists have spent more than a decade at two city blocks within a non-elite district in the Roman city of Pompeii, which was buried under a volcano in 79 AD. The excavations are uncovering the earlier use of buildings that would have dated back to the 6th century.

Ellis says the excavation is producing a complete archaeological analysis of homes, shops and businesses at a forgotten area inside one of the busiest gates of Pompeii, the Porta Stabia.

The area covers 10 separate building plots and a total of 20 shop fronts, most of which served food and drink. The waste that was examined included collections from drains as well as 10 latrines and cesspits, which yielded mineralized and charred food waste coming from kitchens and excrement. Ellis says among the discoveries in the drains was an abundance of the remains of fully-processed foods, especially grains.

“The material from the drains revealed a range and quantity of materials to suggest a rather clear socio-economic distinction between the activities and consumption habits of each property, which were otherwise indistinguishable hospitality businesses,” says Ellis. Findings revealed foods that would have been inexpensive and widely available, such as grains, fruits, nuts, olives, lentils, local fish and chicken eggs, as well as minimal cuts of more expensive meat and salted fish from Spain. Waste from neighboring drains would also turn up less of a variety of foods, revealing a socioeconomic distinction between neighbors.

A drain from a central property revealed a richer variety of foods as well as imports from outside Italy, such as shellfish, sea urchin and even delicacies including the butchered leg joint of a giraffe.

“That the bone represents the height of exotic food is underscored by the fact that this is thought to be the only giraffe bone ever recorded from an archaeological excavation in Roman Italy,” says Ellis. “How part of the animal, butchered, came to be a kitchen scrap in a seemingly standard Pompeian restaurant not only speaks to long-distance trade in exotic and wild animals, but also something of the richness, variety and range of a non-elite diet.”

Deposits also included exotic and imported spices, some from as far away as Indonesia.

Ellis adds that one of the deposits dates as far back as the 4th century, which he says is a particularly valuable discovery, since few other ritual deposits survived from that early stage in the development of Pompeii.

“The ultimate aim of our research is to reveal the structural and social relationships over time between working-class Pompeian households, as well as to determine the role that sub-elites played in the shaping of the city, and to register their response to city-and Mediterranean-wide historical, political and economic developments. However, one of the larger datasets and themes of our research has been diet and the infrastructure of food consumption and food ways,” says Ellis.

He adds that as a result of the discoveries, “The traditional vision of some mass of hapless lemmings – scrounging for whatever they can pinch from the side of a street, or huddled around a bowl of gruel – needs to be replaced by a higher fare and standard of living, at least for the urbanites in Pompeii.”

_________________________________________________________________________________________

Detail of excavated features in the neighborhood under excavation and study. Courtesy UC Department of Classics
__________________________________________________________________________________________

Contributing team leaders on the project who have focused on diet and food ways are Michael MacKinnon, a professor at the University of Winnipeg; Mark Robinson, professor at Oxford University; Jennifer Robinson, also of Oxford University; Emily Holt, professor at Oberlin College and Professor Andrew Fairbairn of the University of Queensland.

Funding for the research was supported by the UC Department of Classics Louise Taft Semple Fund, with generous additional support from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the National Geographic Society, the Loeb Classical Library Foundation and several private benefactors.

Ellis’ presentation, “Explorations into the Complexities of Foodways of Non-elite Roman Urbanites,” will be presented at the Presidential Plenary Session focusing on food and drink. The Presidential Plenary Session is considered one of the highlights of the conference.

__________________________

Source: Dawn Fuller, University of Cincinnati Press Release

All images courtesy UC Department of Classics and Steven Ellis

Cover Photo, Top Left: Overview of the neighborhood of Pompeii under excavation by the University of Cincinnati.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

On the go? Purchase the mobile version of the current issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine here for only $2.99.

Archives: Articles

Researchers Investigate Archaic Greek City-State in Crete

New Clues to Neanderthal-Modern Human Interbreeding

Scientists Discover Cause of Devastating Plague of Justinian

Archaeology News for the Week of January 26th, 2014

Portrait of a Mesolithic Period Individual Emerges

History-Making Expedition Recruits New Scientists

Paleogenomics Changing the Face of Research

Archaeologists Return to Neanderthal Site in Spain

Mother Nature’s Archaeology

Archaeology News for the Week of January 19th, 2014

Genome Study Reveals New Insight on Dog Domestication

Archaeologists Return to Ancient City of Lachish

Archaeologists Discover Rare Ancient Maya Mural in Belize

Archaeology News for the Week of January 12th, 2014

New Iron Age Sites Discovered in Finland

The Ancient Human Hunter Changed the World

2-Million-Year-Old Human Relative ‘Nutcracker Man’ Lived Mostly on Grass Bulbs

Neolithic Mural in Turkey May Illustrate Ancient Volcanic Eruption

Ardi Has Some Human-like Skull Traits, Say Researchers

Researchers Uncover Surprising Diets of the Middle and Lower Class in Pompeii

Recent Articles

EXPLORE THE ANCIENT ETRUSCANS IN PERSON!

Directory

Recent Issues

Main Sections