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Aarhus University—In the Bronze Age, the so-called Nuraghe culture flourished in Sardinia. A culture that is known for tower-like stone constructions, nuraghers, and for the small bronze figures, bronzetti, which often depict warriors, gods and animals. These figures have fascinated scientists, but their exact metallic origins have been unknown.

To find out where the copper in these figures came from, the research team used a new scientific method called a multi-proxy approach (a combination of different chemical analyses). Here, they compared isotopes of copper, tin, lead and a rarer isotope called osmium to get a clearer picture of the origin of the metals. The method, developed at the Curt-Engelhorn Center for Archaeometry in Mannheim, has made it possible to solve a puzzle that has puzzled researchers for years.

“The results show that bronzetti was primarily made from copper from Sardinia, sometimes mixed with copper from the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal). The study also revealed that copper from the Levant – places like Timna in Israel and Faynan in Jordan – was not used in Sardinia, which was only made clear by looking at osmium isotopes,” says first author Daniel Berger from the Curt-Engelhorn Center for Archaeometry, who developed the new method, performed the analyses and provided the basic interpretation.

Collaboration between natural science and archaeology

While Daniel Berger emphasizes how the new method of isotope analyses provides a clear picture of the geographical origin of copper, Helle Vandkilde points to the collaboration between natural science and archaeology.

“Archaeological methods establish a strong foundation that the latest scientific methods can refine and explain. This will bring old discussions to an end. In our case, the very latest geochemical knowledge points to the origin of the metal in specific geographical areas and certain mines. It is also possible in several cases to trace a strategic mix of copper with different origins; Presumably to achieve certain effects such as the product’s colour and strength,” says Professor Helle Vandkilde from Aarhus University.

The researchers also examined three of the largest Nuraghian shrines, all of which produced bronzetti, and discovered that the metal used at each site was very similar. This suggests that there was a common approach to the production of these objects throughout the island.

According to the research group, it is interesting that although Sardinia has local sources of tin and lead, they were not used in the figurines. The tin to be used to make bronze must have been imported, probably from the Iberian Peninsula, based on the isotope signatures of bronzetti and the chemical patterns of Sardinian tin objects.

“Having the opportunity to analyse the famous bronze figures from Sardinia is an important step towards understanding how the island has been a central piece of the metal trade during the Bronze Age. The shape and execution of the figures fit into the material culture of the period, and yet they contain stylistic features that feel amazingly familiar to us in southern Scandinavia. We only have to think of the Viksø helmets or the warriors on our petroglyphs wearing helmets adorned with horns. With new knowledge about where the metal for these figures came from, we are now one step closer to mapping the connections between Sardinia and Scandinavia,” says Associate Professor at Moesgaard Heide Wrobel Nørgaard.

A Nordic connection

Field studies in collaboration between Aarhus University and Moesgaard Museum have demonstrated hitherto unknown connections between Sardinia and the Nordic countries in the Bronze Age 1000-800 BC.

Iconic horned helmets, which we know from Viksø, Kallerup, Grevensvænge and Tanum, also appear in Sardinia, both in miniature and giant formats. In both places, these unique horn-helmeted figures are found.

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The warior bronzetti from Abini, central Sardinia. Most bronzetti are shown with a weapon set consisting of differnet combinations. This bronzetti is part of the archer group and features a sword, bow, arrows, and elements of body armour, including the typical horned helmet. These horned helmets are worn by warrior statuettes.   By Heide W. Nørgaard with permission of the Museo Archaeologica Nazionale di Caglairi.

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A bronzetti picturing another kind of warrior found in the sanctuary of Santa Vittoria di Serri in central Sardinia. This warrior type is only shown with a dagger and has a long, wide cloak. The hands of this bronzetti are broken; however, based on similar bronzetti, it might have shown the open hand gesture.  By Heide W. Nørgaard with permission of the Museo Archaeologica Nazionale di Caglairi.

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Close up of a Nuragic bronzetti, a bronze statuette of circa 10 cm height with the typical horned helmet and the welcoming hand symbol. The bronzetti was found at the Bronze Age sanctuary of Abini in central Sardinia.  By Heide W. Nørgaard with permission of the Museo Archaeologica Nazionale di Caglairi.

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Article Source: Aarhus University news release

*Multiproxy analysis unwraps origin and fabrication biographies of Sardinian figurines: On the trail of metal-driven interaction and mixing practices in the early first millennium BCE, 10-Sep-2025. 10.1371/journal.pone.0328268 

It is known as the Gabinetto Segreto, or ‘Secret Room’ in english. Tucked away among the mosaics collection in a separate room within the Naples National Archaeological Museum, it houses 250 sexually-themed objects, acquired mostly from excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Fresco paintings, detached from the walls of private residences and villas, most prominently those of the wealthy of ancient Pompeii, display in unapologetic fashion and in full-throttle view the erotic lives and culture of the city’s citizens. Objects include garden decorations and frescoes from the lupanare, brothels, banquet furnishings, and phallus-shaped objects. Enter Pompeii itself, and one will see this culture sprinkled throughout the remains. 

This ancient city, which was preserved under the volcanic ash of the volcanic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 AD, offers a remarkable glimpse into the sexual mores and practices of its inhabitants. The frescoes and mosaics of Pompeii serve as a vibrant visual narrative that encapsulates the complexities of human sexuality in the ancient city. These artistic expressions reveal not only the erotic desires of the Pompeians but also their social norms and cultural practices. The walls of homes, public baths, and taverns were adorned with explicit imagery that reflects a society unafraid to celebrate sensuality. Through these artworks, we glean insights into the everyday lives of the inhabitants and the prominent role sexuality played in their interactions.

In many individual households, frescoes depicted scenes of love and eroticism, often featuring mythological figures intertwined in intimate embraces. These representations were not merely decorative; they were imbued with meaning and purpose, often serving as talismans for fertility and prosperity. The presence of such imagery suggests that sexuality was a vital component of domestic life, influencing marital customs and the expectations of partners within relationships. As we explore these artworks, we begin to understand how visual art functioned as a narrative device that communicated societal values, personal aspirations, and simply what it was to be human.

Mosaics, on the other hand, often highlighted the roles of gender and power dynamics within Pompeian society. In public spaces, these intricate designs frequently showcased both male and female figures engaged in various activities, some of which alluded to sexual encounters. The placement of these mosaics in areas frequented by the public suggests a deliberate intention to provoke dialogue about sexuality and desire. Such artworks provide a window into the myriad of sexual relationships that flourished in Pompeii, including those that transgressed conventional boundaries of the time, such as same-sex relationships and their acceptance in certain contexts.

Moreover, the interplay between class and sexuality is vividly illustrated through the artistic choices made by the Pompeians. Wealthier citizens often commissioned more elaborate and explicit works, using art to signal their social status and sophistication. This disparity in artistic expression raises important questions about how class influenced sexual norms and practices in Pompeian culture. As we examine these artworks, we must consider the ways in which they reflect not only individual desires but also the broader societal structures that shaped and constrained those desires.

The Symbolism of Sexual Imagery

In the vibrant and complex society of Pompeii, sexual imagery served as a powerful symbol reflecting the values, beliefs, and dynamics of daily life. The use of sexual motifs in art and architecture was not merely for shock value; rather, it conveyed messages about fertility, prosperity, and the interconnectedness of the human experience with the divine. From frescoes to mosaics, the explicit representation of sexual acts and symbols played a significant role in public and private spaces, influencing how inhabitants perceived their sexuality and relationships.

Contrary to the visual conventions and constraints of modern society today, the prominence of sexual imagery in Pompeian society can be observed in various public settings, including baths and taverns, where such depictions were commonplace. These images were not only decorative but also served as a form of social commentary, reflecting the attitudes towards sexuality that permeated everyday life. They often highlighted the celebration of the human body and its desires, suggesting a culture that embraced rather than shunned sexuality as an integral part of existence.

Gender dynamics within Pompeian society were intricately linked to the symbolism of sexual imagery. Men and women were often depicted in ways that reinforced societal roles, with male figures frequently shown in positions of dominance. This representation mirrored the patriarchal structure of Pompeian life, where male authority was celebrated, while female sexuality was both revered and objectified. The artistic portrayal of women in sexual contexts often sparked debates about agency and power, revealing the nuanced complexities of gender relations in ancient Rome.

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This room is thought to have been a dressing room for people attending the baths.[1][2][3]
These wall paintings were found in 1986[1] in the newly excavated Suburban Baths. The paintings are dated to 62 to 79 CE. Sailko, CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

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Gender Dynamics and Sexual Relationships in Pompeian Society

Roles of Men and Women in Sexual Relationships

In Pompeian society, the roles of men and women in sexual relationships were deeply intertwined with the cultural, social, and economic fabric of daily life. Men were often viewed as the dominant figures, wielding power not only in public spheres but also within private relationships. This patriarchal structure dictated not only the conduct of men but also shaped the expectations placed on women, who were generally expected to be submissive and nurturing, focusing on domestic responsibilities while adhering to the ideals of fidelity and modesty.

Women in Pompeii, while often relegated to the background, played vital roles in the sexual dynamics of their relationships. Their sexuality was both a source of power and a site of oppression. Although many women were confined to the household, their influence could extend beyond domesticity, particularly in matters of family lineage and inheritance. The perception of women as vessels of honor meant that their sexual conduct was closely monitored, reflecting the values of Pompeian society and the significance of reputation.

The artistic representations of sexuality in Pompeii reveal much about the gender dynamics at play. Frescoes and mosaics often depicted scenes of sexual encounters, serving both as erotic art and as commentary on societal norms. These artworks not only celebrated the physical beauty of both sexes but also illustrated the perceived roles within sexual relationships, often highlighting the dichotomy of male virility and female passivity. The prevalence of such imagery indicates a society that not only accepted but also openly engaged with sexual expression, albeit within the constraints of established gender roles.

Understanding the roles of men and women in these sexual relationships offers insight into the broader socio-cultural landscape of Pompeii. The intersection of class, gender, and sexuality created a unique tapestry of human interaction, where personal desires were often at odds with societal expectations. This exploration not only sheds light on the nature of intimacy in ancient times but also prompts reflection on the evolving dynamics of gender and sexuality in contemporary society.

Power Dynamics and Consent

In the vibrant society of Pompeii, power dynamics played a crucial role in shaping sexual relationships and consent. The interplay between social status and individual desires influenced how consent was understood and enacted. Wealthy citizens often held significant power over their less affluent counterparts, creating an environment where consent could be coerced or manipulated. This disparity highlights a nuanced understanding of consent that was often intertwined with economic and social hierarchies, complicating the notion of mutual agreement in sexual encounters.

Artistic representations from Pompeii provide a lens through which we can explore these power dynamics. Murals and mosaics frequently depicted sexual themes, showcasing both consensual and non-consensual acts. These artworks not only served as decoration but also as social commentary, reflecting the accepted norms and practices of the time. By analysing these visual narratives, one can discern the subtle distinctions between desire and obligation, illustrating how consent was often overshadowed by power imbalances.

Gender dynamics further complicated the landscape of consent in Pompeian society. Men typically held dominant positions, dictating the terms of sexual relationships. Women, on the other hand, were often relegated to passive roles, their autonomy frequently undermined. However, women could also exert influence within their domestic spheres, negotiating terms of consent in their relationships. This duality reveals a complex interplay between power and consent, suggesting that while societal norms often constrained women, they were not entirely powerless in their sexual agency.

Marital Customs and Sexual Norms in Pompeian Culture

Marriage Practices and Expectations

Marriage in Pompeii was a multifaceted institution that reflected the complexities of social dynamics and personal relationships. It served not only as a bond between individuals but also as a crucial element of societal structure. Marriages were often arranged, reflecting family interests and alliances, and were expected to ensure the continuation of family lineage. Love and personal desire were frequently secondary to these practical considerations, shaping the expectations surrounding marital unions in Pompeian society.

The role of sexuality within marriage was equally intricate. Sexual relations were not merely about procreation but were also a means to reinforce social bonds and obligations. Husbands were expected to fulfill their duties towards their wives, while wives were often confined to roles that prioritized domestic responsibilities over personal desires. This dynamic created a complex interplay of power and expectation, with men often holding authority in both public and private spheres, while women’s sexuality was largely dictated by societal norms.

Artistic representations from Pompeii offer valuable insights into the sexual norms and marital customs of the time. Frescoes and mosaics often depicted scenes of love, desire, and even eroticism within the context of marriage. These artworks suggest a society that acknowledged and celebrated sexual expression, albeit within the confines of established marital roles. They provide a visual narrative that contrasts with the more rigid expectations that governed daily life, highlighting the duality of experience within Pompeian marriages.

Gender dynamics played a significant role in shaping the experiences of married couples in Pompeii. Men and women navigated their relationships within a framework of societal expectations that often dictated their behavior and interactions. While men enjoyed greater freedoms, women were often expected to embody virtues of fidelity and modesty. This disparity created a social landscape where the expectations of marriage were heavily influenced by gender, impacting the nature of sexual relationships and personal satisfaction within these unions.

The intersection of class and sexuality further complicates the understanding of marriage practices in Pompeii. Wealth and social status influenced not only the choice of partners but also the nature of marital contracts. Elite families often sought to maintain their status through strategic marriages, while lower classes may have had more flexibility in their choices. This stratification reveals that while marriage was a universal institution in Pompeii, the expectations and experiences associated with it varied greatly depending on one’s social standing, reflecting broader themes of desire and power within the ashes of this ancient city.

Infidelity and Its Consequences

Infidelity was a complex and often contentious issue in Pompeian society, deeply intertwined with the cultural norms of sexuality and marital customs. In this vibrant community, the expectations of fidelity were often at odds with the realities of human desire. Marriages were frequently arranged for economic or social reasons rather than romantic love, which sometimes led individuals to seek emotional or physical satisfaction outside their unions. This duality created a fertile ground for infidelity, which was both condemned and yet tolerated to varying degrees within different social classes.

The consequences of infidelity in Pompeii could be severe, impacting not only the individuals involved but also the broader family unit and community. For women, the repercussions were particularly harsh; they were often held to stringent standards of fidelity, and a woman’s infidelity could lead to social ostracism or even violence. Men, on the other hand, often navigated a more permissive landscape where extramarital affairs were more socially acceptable, especially if conducted discreetly. This gender disparity reflects the underlying power dynamics present in Pompeian society, where male privilege often dictated the rules of engagement in relationships.

Artistic representations of infidelity in Pompeii reveal much about the societal attitudes toward sexual relationships. Frescoes and mosaics often depicted scenes of love and lust, sometimes celebrating infidelity in a manner that suggests a level of acceptance or even admiration for such acts. These artworks served as both a reflection of and a commentary on the sexual norms of the time, illustrating the complexities of desire and the often blurred lines between fidelity and infidelity within the vibrant social fabric of Pompeii.

Interestingly, infidelity also intersected with issues of class in Pompeian society. Wealthy individuals had greater access to resources that allowed them to engage in extramarital affairs with less risk of social repercussions. In contrast, those from lower classes faced harsher judgments and consequences for similar behaviors. This class dynamic underscores the idea that infidelity was not merely a personal failing but was also shaped by societal structures and economic realities that dictated the terms of sexual relationships.

Ultimately, the consequences of infidelity in Pompeii reflect the broader themes of desire, power, and societal expectations. By examining these dynamics, one gains insight into how sexuality was not just a private matter but a public spectacle that influenced social standing, personal relationships, and community cohesion. The exploration of infidelity in this ancient city highlights the timeless nature of human desire and the intricate ways in which it shapes and is shaped by cultural contexts.

The Intersection of Class and Sexuality in Pompeii

Class Distinctions and Sexual Behavior

In Pompeian society, class distinctions played a significant role in shaping sexual behavior and relationships. The city’s social hierarchy created a landscape where the wealthy and the impoverished navigated their desires within different constraints and opportunities. For the elite, sexual encounters often reflected their status and power, as they could engage in relationships with courtesans or slaves, while still maintaining a veneer of respectability. Conversely, those of lower social standing faced limitations, and their sexual expressions were often dictated by the need for survival and social mobility.

The interplay between sexuality and daily life in Pompeii reveals how class influenced not only personal relationships but also the broader cultural norms surrounding sexual conduct. Public spaces such as baths and taverns served as venues where social classes intersected, allowing for both consensual and transactional encounters. This dynamic not only facilitated sexual exploration but also reinforced existing class structures, as wealth and power often dictated the terms of engagement in these interactions. The fluidity of sexual relationships in these settings underscores the complexity of Pompeian society, where desire and status were inextricably linked.

Artistic representations from Pompeii provide valuable insights into the sexual mores of the time, illustrating how class distinctions informed the depiction of erotic themes. Frescoes and mosaics often celebrated the sensuality of the elite, portraying lavish banquets and indulgent encounters that highlighted their wealth and excess. In contrast, more modest representations reflected the realities of the lower classes, who might engage in sexual activities out of necessity rather than desire. These artistic expressions serve as a testament to the varied experiences of sexuality across different social strata, revealing the underlying tensions and desires that characterized Pompeian life.

Gender dynamics also played a crucial role in shaping sexual behavior, with expectations differing markedly between men and women. For instance, men often enjoyed greater freedom to explore same-sex relationships, while women were typically confined to heterosexual norms within marriage. This disparity highlighted the patriarchal nature of Pompeian society, where women’s sexual autonomy was heavily restricted. However, the existence of same-sex relationships among men points to a more nuanced understanding of sexuality, suggesting that desire was often more fluid than rigid societal norms would imply.

Ultimately, the intersection of class and sexuality in Pompeii underscores the complexity of human desire in a society steeped in both privilege and poverty. The varying experiences of sexual expression, shaped by social standing, gender, and cultural expectations, reflect a rich tapestry of human behavior. Understanding these distinctions not only enriches our knowledge of Pompeian life but also invites us to consider how similar dynamics continue to influence sexual relationships in contemporary societies.

The Influence of Wealth on Sexual Practices

In Pompeian society, wealth played a pivotal role in shaping sexual practices and relationships. The affluent classes had access to a broader range of sexual experiences, often facilitated by their economic means. Luxury villas, adorned with explicit frescoes, served as both homes and venues for intimate encounters, reflecting the owners’ status and desires. This environment enabled the wealthy to engage in sexual activities that transcended the norms of their lower-class counterparts, revealing a distinct divide in sexual freedoms and expectations based on economic status.

The intersection of class and sexuality is particularly evident in the portrayal of sexual acts in Pompeian art. Many frescoes and mosaics depict scenes that suggest a celebration of eroticism, often commissioned by wealthy patrons. These artistic representations not only showcase the sexual exploits of the elite but also reinforce societal norms surrounding sexuality. For instance, the imagery often highlights heterosexual relationships, yet it also hints at the existence of same-sex interactions, providing a glimpse into the varied sexual dynamics that flourished among different social classes.

Moreover, the role of sexual relationships in shaping personal and political alliances cannot be understated. Wealthy families often used marriages as strategic tools to enhance their status or secure advantageous connections. This practice was not limited to heterosexual unions; same-sex relationships among the elite could also serve similar purposes, creating networks of loyalty and support. The sexual practices of the wealthy thus reflect broader societal values, where personal desires intersect with economic and political ambitions.

However, the sexual norms and expectations varied significantly between classes. While the elite might indulge in sexual experimentation and libertinism, the lower classes faced stricter societal constraints. This disparity in sexual freedom often led to a duality in sexual expression, where the privileged could openly explore their desires while the lower classes were relegated to more covert expressions of sexuality. Such dynamics illustrate the complex interplay between wealth, power, and sexual identity in Pompeii.

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Wall Painting of Priapus, House of the Vettii. Sailko, CC BY-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

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Homosexuality and Same-Sex Relationships in Pompeii

In the ancient city of Pompeii, evidence of same-sex relationships can be found in various forms, from graffiti to artistic representations. These remnants reveal a complex understanding of sexuality that transcended the binary norms prevalent in many societies. The vibrant culture of Pompeii allowed for varied expressions of desire, showcasing relationships that were as passionate as they were clandestine. The inscriptions on walls, often filled with playful messages or declarations of love, provide a glimpse into the emotional lives of individuals who sought connections beyond the heterosexual norm.

Artistic representations in Pompeii therefore further illuminated the existence of same-sex relationships. Frescoes, mosaics, and sculptures depict intimate interactions between individuals of the same sex, often celebrating their affection openly. Such artworks not only reflect the societal acceptance of these relationships but also suggest that they were an integral aspect of daily life. By examining these pieces, we can better understand how sexuality was portrayed and perceived in the context of Pompeian culture, hinting at a society that embraced a broader spectrum of human desire.

The societal dynamics of Pompeii also played a significant role in shaping same-sex relationships. Gender roles were distinctly defined, yet there existed a fluidity that allowed for diverse interactions. Men and women engaged in same-sex relationships without the stigma that would later emerge in other historical contexts. The interplay of class and sexuality further complicated these dynamics, with the elite often having more freedom to express their desires, regardless of societal expectations. This intersection highlights the importance of class in understanding the nuances of sexual relationships in Pompeii.

Marital customs in Pompeii also provide insight into the acceptance of same-sex relationships. While marriage was primarily viewed as a means of procreation and social alliance, love and desire were not strictly limited to heterosexual unions. The existence of same-sex relationships within this framework reveals the complexities of human sexuality, where emotional bonds could flourish outside traditional norms. This acceptance indicates a broader understanding of love and companionship, which was celebrated in both public and private spheres.

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Cover Image, Top Left: Venus and Eros. Mentnafunangann, CC By-SA 4.0, Wikimedia Commons

Archaeology is often viewed as a romantic pursuit—scholars carefully brushing away layers of soil to uncover forgotten artifacts, ancient ruins, and the remnants of civilizations long past. While it indeed holds the allure of discovery, archaeological excavation is also a physically demanding and sometimes hazardous activity. Beneath the surface beauty of exploration lies a range of safety concerns, from collapsing trenches and exposure to hazardous materials, to heat stress and repetitive motion injuries. Ensuring the safety of archaeologists, students, and volunteers on excavation sites is therefore just as important as preserving the delicate artifacts they seek.

This article explores the potential risks in archaeological excavations, highlights best practices for injury prevention, and offers insights into how professionals balance safety with the pursuit of knowledge.

Understanding the Risks in Archaeological Excavations

Before considering how to prevent injury, it is essential to understand the types of risks archaeologists face:

1. Trench and Excavation Hazards

Working in trenches or pits is one of the most common features of archaeology. However, poorly supported trenches may collapse unexpectedly, trapping or injuring workers. Soil types, water infiltration, and weather changes can all affect trench stability.

2. Musculoskeletal Injuries

Archaeology often requires repetitive tasks—kneeling, bending, lifting soil, and carefully scraping with hand tools. Without proper body mechanics or protective equipment, workers may suffer strains, sprains, or chronic back pain.

3. Environmental Exposure

Excavation sites are typically outdoors, meaning workers are exposed to intense sunlight, fluctuating weather, insects, and in some regions, snakes or scorpions. Sunburn, dehydration, and heatstroke are real risks.

4. Hazardous Materials

Some sites may expose archaeologists to toxic substances, whether it’s asbestos from historical building debris, mold from ancient organic remains, or even unexploded ordnance in areas of past conflict.

5. Slips, Trips, and Falls

Uneven terrain, loose rocks, or excavation tools lying around the site can easily cause accidents.

6. Transportation-Related Risks

Many archaeological sites are located in remote regions, requiring travel by rough roads or off-road vehicles. The risks of transportation-related injuries—similar to any workplace travel—are significant. In cases of severe accidents, individuals might even seek help from legal professionals such as a car accident attorney San Diego if the incident occurs during travel for fieldwork.

Safety Protocols for Excavation Sites

1. Site Assessment and Planning

Every excavation begins with a detailed site assessment. Safety officers and lead archaeologists evaluate soil stability, potential hazards, weather patterns, and access routes. By mapping risks ahead of time, teams can prepare appropriate protective strategies.

2. Protective Equipment

Workers should be equipped with safety helmets, steel-toe boots, gloves, and knee pads. Sunhats, sunscreen, and insect repellent are equally important. Personal protective equipment (PPE) is the first line of defense against injury.

3. Trench Safety Measures

To prevent cave-ins, trenches deeper than 1.5 meters should have shoring, shielding, or benching systems in place. Teams must monitor soil conditions daily, especially after heavy rain.

4. Safe Tool Use

From trowels to shovels, tools must be maintained in good condition and used correctly. Training workers on ergonomic techniques—like lifting with the legs instead of the back—reduces repetitive injuries.

5. Hydration and Rest Breaks

In hot climates, dehydration and heat exhaustion can strike quickly. Teams should enforce mandatory water breaks and shaded rest areas. In colder climates, protective clothing and warm shelters are vital.

6. Clear Site Organization

Organized excavation areas with designated paths, storage zones, and tool areas reduce the chance of accidents. Proper signage is essential when dealing with deep pits or fragile structures.

Training and Education

No matter how well a site is prepared, human error remains one of the greatest risks. That is why training is fundamental to safe excavation.

• First Aid Training: Every archaeological team should have members certified in basic first aid and CPR.
• Hazard Awareness Workshops: Before excavation begins, all team members should be briefed on potential hazards specific to the site.
• Emergency Drills: Practicing evacuation and rescue scenarios ensures the team knows how to respond in real emergencies.

Universities and cultural heritage organizations also incorporate safety modules into archaeology training programs, preparing the next generation of archaeologists for both scientific and safety challenges.

Case Studies: Lessons from the Field

1. Pompeii, Italy

Excavations at Pompeii present unique risks due to unstable ruins, falling debris, and extreme summer heat. Over the years, strict protocols—including scaffolding, helmets, and hydration rules—have prevented serious injuries.

2. Egyptian Desert Sites

Archaeologists excavating in Egypt contend with searing heat and dehydration. Teams implement rigorous hydration schedules, shaded rest breaks, and even on-site medical personnel to mitigate risks.

3. Urban Excavations in Europe

In cities like London, excavations often intersect with modern infrastructure—gas pipes, electrical lines, or traffic zones. Strict collaboration with city planners and utility companies ensures safety.

Balancing Safety with Preservation

Archaeologists face a delicate balance: ensuring worker safety while protecting fragile artifacts and structures. Sometimes, protective shoring or barriers might interfere with excavation work. In these cases, creative solutions are necessary—such as using advanced technology (3D scanning, drones, or ground-penetrating radar) to minimize direct digging while still gathering data.

Modern Technology and Safety

Today’s archaeological sites are increasingly incorporating technology to reduce human risk.

• Drones: Provide aerial surveys, reducing the need for workers to climb unstable terrain.
• 3D Scanners: Allow researchers to analyze structures digitally, reducing time spent in hazardous trenches.
• Remote Sensing Equipment: Helps locate underground features without the need for extensive excavation, minimizing exposure to risks.

A Culture of Safety in Archaeology

Ultimately, the prevention of personal injury in archaeology is not just about rules—it’s about culture. Teams that foster a culture of responsibility, communication, and care are far more successful in avoiding accidents. Workers should feel empowered to voice concerns, pause unsafe work, or suggest improvements.

The treasures of the past deserve to be unearthed, but not at the cost of human health. By prioritizing safety, archaeologists ensure that discoveries not only enrich our knowledge but are made responsibly and sustainably.

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Archaeological excavations are invaluable for uncovering the stories of our past, but they are not without risks. Hazards such as trench collapses, environmental stress, and repetitive injuries remind us that safety must always come first. With careful planning, protective measures, and the integration of modern technology, teams can dramatically reduce the likelihood of accidents.

At the same time, fostering a culture of awareness and responsibility ensures that everyone involved—from seasoned archaeologists to student volunteers—can contribute safely. And while archaeology is a unique field, the principle remains universal: protecting people is just as important as preserving history. For those seeking further guidance on safety, legal support, or accident prevention, resources like hhjtrialattorneys.com can offer valuable insights into managing risk and responding effectively to injuries.

By prioritizing both discovery and safety, archaeologists can continue their work with confidence—unearthing treasures of the past while safeguarding the well-being of those in the present.

Water is the silent force that has shaped civilizations. While grand monuments, temples, and palaces capture our imagination, the true lifeblood of societies often lies buried beneath our feet. Archaeological excavations across the globe have revealed that ancient cities were not only centers of politics, religion, and culture, but also marvels of engineering when it came to water management. Beneath the soil, crumbled ruins, and forgotten streets exist the arteries of history: aqueducts, sewers, cisterns, wells, and reservoirs.

Studying these hidden water systems has opened an entirely new dimension in archaeology. Far from being mundane infrastructure, they reveal how societies understood cleanliness, religion, public health, and even social hierarchy. Every excavation that uncovers ancient plumbing or water storage offers a window into daily life and the priorities of civilizations long gone.

From the advanced drainage of Mohenjo-Daro to the monumental aqueducts of Rome, and from sacred temple baths to ingenious underground cisterns, buried water systems remind us of the ingenuity of our ancestors. They challenge the assumption that technological sophistication is unique to modern societies and prove that human creativity in managing life’s essential resource is as old as civilization itself.

Urban Excavations – Discovering Water Systems in Mohenjo-Daro, Roman Cities, and Pompeii

One of the most remarkable aspects of archaeological water studies is how widespread and advanced these systems were across different civilizations, continents, and eras.

Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing around 2500 BCE, is one of the earliest known urban cultures to showcase a sophisticated system of water management. Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Pakistan revealed a city with meticulous planning. Streets were laid out in grid patterns, and alongside them ran covered drains that connected to larger sewage channels.

Each house often had its own private bathing area connected to these drains, suggesting that sanitation was not only a communal concern but also an individual right. Archaeologists uncovered brick-lined wells scattered throughout the city, demonstrating that access to water was carefully distributed. Unlike later civilizations where water distribution sometimes reflected social stratification, the Indus system hints at a surprisingly egalitarian urban planning philosophy.

The sheer scale of coordination needed to build and maintain such infrastructure indicates a highly organized civic administration. Mohenjo-Daro’s sewer system rivals some modern towns, proving that cleanliness and water accessibility were core values even 4,000 years ago.

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Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Valley Civilization

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Rome: Aqueducts, Sewers, and Public Baths

The Roman Empire took water management to unprecedented heights. Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts stretching across miles of countryside, carrying fresh water into the city through precisely engineered arches, tunnels, and channels. These aqueducts provided water not just for drinking, but for fountains, latrines, public baths, and even private homes of the wealthy.

The Cloaca Maxima, Rome’s grand sewer system, was initially constructed to drain marshland but later became a crucial channel for wastewater. It remains partially functional even today, a testament to Roman engineering. Excavations around the city reveal an impressive layering of infrastructure—sometimes new aqueducts and drains were built over older ones, creating a historical palimpsest of water technology.

Public baths, supplied by aqueducts and emptied through sewers, were central to Roman life. Archaeological digs at Pompeii and Herculaneum preserved bathhouses, fountains, and piping systems that show how integrated water was to urban leisure and social life. Water, therefore, was not just about survival but about status, culture, and identity.

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Rome Aqueducts, Sewers, and Public Bath

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Pompeii: Everyday Plumbing Frozen in Time

When Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE, it buried Pompeii under volcanic ash, accidentally preserving an entire Roman city. Excavations there have revealed unparalleled details about household plumbing. Archaeologists discovered lead pipes (fistulae) supplying water directly into homes, sometimes adorned with inscriptions identifying the craftsman or the patron.

Pompeii’s fountains, street-side water taps, and elaborate bathhouses illustrate a society where water flowed into both public and private spaces with remarkable efficiency. However, the city also highlights disparities: while wealthier homes had direct water connections, poorer households depended on public fountains. This duality helps modern scholars understand how social class influenced access to resources.

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Pompeii water system

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Sacred & Ritual Uses – Plumbing in Temples, Baths, and Ceremonial Sites

Water is not only essential for life but also deeply symbolic. Archaeological discoveries show that ancient societies infused water systems with spiritual and ritual significance.

Mesopotamian and Egyptian Temples

In Mesopotamia, temple complexes often included sacred courtyards with channels designed to carry water for ritual purification. The association of water with divinity and cleansing was central to the region’s spiritual worldview. Similarly, Egyptian temples included sacred lakes where priests performed purification rituals before ceremonies. Excavations of temple ruins reveal carefully engineered basins and channels designed to hold and circulate water.

Greek and Roman Bathing as Ritual

Greek and Roman baths were not merely about hygiene—they were social, cultural, and sometimes spiritual experiences. Bathing involved a sequence of rooms with varying water temperatures, reflecting ideas of bodily purification. Archaeological remains of sanctuaries often include water systems designed for ritual cleansing, confirming that the line between practical plumbing and sacred symbolism was often blurred.

Hindu Stepwells and Ritual Bathing

In the Indian subcontinent, stepwells and bathing ghats show how water systems were intertwined with spirituality. Archaeological studies of sites like the Chand Baori stepwell reveal how architecture and water management combined to create both functional and sacred spaces. Ritual bathing in rivers, tanks, and temple wells highlights how access to water was considered essential for spiritual health.

Mesoamerican Ceremonial Water Systems

The Maya civilization constructed sophisticated water management systems, including underground reservoirs known as chultuns. Some of these were directly linked to sacred rituals. Archaeological findings suggest that water was not just stored but also sanctified, with offerings often deposited in reservoirs and cenotes (natural sinkholes). The famous Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza contained artifacts and human remains, indicating its role as a ritual site.

Engineering Ingenuity – Tunnels, Cisterns, and Underground Reservoirs

The creativity of ancient engineers in channeling, storing, and preserving water continues to astonish archaeologists.

Qanats of Persia

One of the most ingenious systems is the qanat, developed in ancient Persia. These underground channels tapped into aquifers and gently sloped downhill, bringing water to the surface without pumps. Qanats extended for miles and were constructed with vertical shafts for ventilation and maintenance. Archaeological evidence shows they sustained cities, agriculture, and trade routes across arid landscapes for centuries.

Cisterns of Jerusalem and Istanbul

Excavations in Jerusalem reveal massive underground cisterns carved into bedrock, designed to store rainwater and supply the city during sieges. Similarly, the Byzantine city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) boasted the monumental Basilica Cistern, supported by hundreds of stone columns. Built in the 6th century, this vast underground reservoir highlights how water engineering was essential to urban survival.

Nabatean Desert Mastery

The Nabateans, builders of Petra in Jordan, turned a desert into a thriving city through water ingenuity. Archaeologists have uncovered channels, dams, and cisterns that captured flash floods and redirected them into storage reservoirs. Their ability to control scarce water resources enabled them to flourish in one of the harshest environments on Earth.

Minoan Plumbing on Crete

On the island of Crete, the Minoan civilization constructed some of the earliest known pressurized water systems. Excavations at the Palace of Knossos revealed terracotta pipes capable of supplying water under pressure, allowing for fountains and flushing toilets. This combination of practicality and luxury shows that water engineering was central to their urban identity.

Preservation Issues – Protecting Delicate Water System Remains

While archaeological discoveries of water systems are breathtaking, they are also fragile. Protecting these remains is a constant challenge for archaeologists, conservators, and heritage organizations.

Natural Decay and Environmental Threats

Many ancient water systems were built of perishable materials such as wood, clay, or unbaked brick. Exposure to modern air, moisture, and pollution accelerates their decay once excavated. Underground structures such as cisterns are particularly vulnerable to collapse when not properly supported.

Urban Development Pressures

Modern urbanization often threatens archaeological sites. Expanding cities sometimes build directly over ancient remains, destroying valuable evidence. For instance, rapid development in regions of the Middle East and South Asia risks covering or damaging ancient water infrastructure before it can be studied.

Conservation Efforts

Archaeologists employ various methods to preserve delicate remains. Some sites are reburied after documentation to protect them from weathering, while others are reinforced and turned into public heritage attractions. Advances in 3D scanning and digital modeling allow researchers to record details without physically disturbing fragile structures. In cases where plumbing expertise is needed to understand water flow, collaborations with modern plomberie expert teams can bridge ancient techniques with contemporary knowledge.

How Buried Water Systems Redefine Our Understanding of Ancient Life

The study of buried water systems has redefined our perception of ancient civilizations. Far from being primitive, our ancestors displayed remarkable foresight, creativity, and technical skill in managing water.

The sewers of Mohenjo-Daro remind us that sanitation has been central to human well-being for millennia. The aqueducts of Rome showcase an empire’s ambition to harness natural resources on a monumental scale. The sacred reservoirs of the Maya and the ritual baths of Greece demonstrate water’s role beyond utility—as a medium of culture and spirituality.

Moreover, the ingenuity of ancient engineers in deserts, mountains, and islands proves that water management was often the key factor that allowed cities to rise, flourish, and endure. Today, these buried systems continue to influence modern urban planning, environmental sustainability, and even religious practices.

Preserving these fragile remains is not merely about saving stones and pipes—it is about protecting the legacy of human resilience and adaptation. As archaeologists continue to uncover hidden aqueducts, cisterns, and sewers beneath ancient cities, we are reminded that water is not only essential to survival but also deeply entwined with culture, faith, and identity.

In the end, what lies buried beneath tells us as much about humanity as what rises above. By studying ancient water systems, we do not just uncover plumbing—we rediscover the very foundations of civilization.

Université de Genève—What do we know about the last hunter-gatherers who lived in West Africa? While these prehistoric populations have been extensively studied in Europe and Asia, their presence in this vast region — covering 6 million square kilometres, more than ten times the size of France — remains poorly documented. Using an interdisciplinary approach, a team from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) working on one of the rare archaeological sites in Senegal dating back to the early Holocene, over 9,000 years ago, has now uncovered new insights into these communities and the stone-knapping techniques they used to make their tools. These findings are published in PLOS One.

The subsistence of prehistoric hunter-gatherers relied on hunting, gathering, and fishing. Nomadic or semi-nomadic, their groups moved with the seasons and the availability of resources. Present on every continent, this way of life dominated human history until the gradual emergence of pottery, animal husbandry, and agriculture during the Neolithic, which unfolded at different times and in different ways across the world.

Numerous excavations in Europe, Asia, and southern and eastern Africa have allowed researchers to study and document hunter-gatherer populations in detail. In other regions, however — particularly in West Africa — their presence is much harder to trace. ‘’In this part of the continent, climatic and geological factors have not favored the preservation of stratified remains in the soil. Yet stratification is crucial: it captures successive phases of occupation and provides key information on chronology, lifestyle changes, and climatic and environmental evolution,’’ explains Anne Mayor, director of the ARCAN Laboratory at UNIGE’s Faculty of Science and senior lecturer and researcher at the Global Studies Institute.

At the heart of prehistoric know-how

The discovery in 2017 of the Ravin Blanc X site in Senegal’s Falémé Valley, led by Eric Huysecom — honorary professor at UNIGE and then director of the research project Human Population and Paleoenvironment in Africa — is beginning to shed light on these questions. Exceptionally well preserved despite its small surface area of 25 m², the deep layer of this site, uncovered beneath a much more recent Neolithic deposit, offers a rare snapshot of the early Holocene — the temperate interglacial era we still live in today. This period followed nearly 10,000 years of severe drought in the region.

Using an interdisciplinary approach in collaboration with the Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, Charlotte Pruvost, a doctoral student at the ARCAN Laboratory, has uncovered and analysed the remains of a 9,000-year-old quartz knapping workshop, along with a fireplace. ‘’We didn’t find any formal quartz tools — the hunter-gatherers took them — but we did find a pile of production waste. By patiently piecing together the flakes and cores that had remained in place since then, like a jigsaw puzzle, we were able to reconstruct the techniques used, the criteria for selecting high-quality quartz, and the skill level of the knappers,’’ explains Charlotte Pruvost, lead author of the study.

The few archaeological sites from this period in West Africa are characterised by very small stone tools, or ‘’microliths’’, designed to be hafted and used as hunting weapons. By comparing the Ravin Blanc X remains with those from the few other well-dated West African sites, researchers observed technical similarities that may point to shared traditions among the last hunter-gatherers of the West African savannahs. Indeed, the microliths found at these savannah sites reveal sophisticated craftsmanship aimed at producing highly standardised, identical tools.

‘‘Conversely, sites further south, in tropical forest settings, show different, more opportunistic technical choices. The lack of standardisation in tools suggests that cultural groups were already quite distinct between regions with differing environments,’’ explains Anne Mayor, who led the research.

Multidisciplinary approach

These results stem from interdisciplinary collaboration. Charcoal from the fireplace was analysed by carbon-14 specialists and anthracologists, who identified the wood species used to make the fire. Soils were studied by geomorphologists, sedimentologists, and palaeoenvironmentalists, who examined phytoliths — silica remains from plants — to reconstruct the climate and landscape in which these quartz knappers lived.

This research involved institutions in Switzerland, Senegal, France and Germany. It sheds new light on the diversity of technical practices and material cultures in West Africa at a pivotal moment marked by simultaneous cultural, climatic and environmental transformations.

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Article Source: University of Geneva news release.

*A Later Stone Age quartz knapping workshop and fireplace dated to the Early Holocene in Senegal: The Ravin Blanc X site (RBX), PLOS One, 3-Sep-2025. 10.1371/journal.pone.0329824 

Cover Image, Top Left: Pixabay

Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—The spread of the Slavs stands as one of the most formative yet least understood events in European history. Starting in the 6th century CE, Slavic groups began to appear in the written records of Byzantine and Western sources, settling lands from the Baltic to the Balkans, and from the Elbe to the Volga. Yet, in stark contrast to the famous migrations of Germanic tribes like the Goths or Langobards or the legendary conquests of the Huns, the Slavic story has long been a difficult puzzle for historians of the European Middle Ages.

This is partly because early Slavic communities left behind rather little for archaeologists to find: they practiced cremation, built simple houses, and produced plain, undecorated pottery. Perhaps most significantly, they did not leave behind written records of their own for several centuries. As a result, the term “Slavs” itself has been ambiguous, sometimes imposed by outside chroniclers and often mis-used in later nationalist or ideological debates. Where did these people come from, and how did they so thoroughly change the cultural and linguistic map of Europe?

Historians have long debated whether the spread of Slavic material culture and language was driven by a mass migration of people, the gradual “Slavicisation” of local populations, or a combination of both. But the evidence was thin—especially in the crucial early centuries, when cremation made DNA studies nearly impossible and archaeological traces were modest.

How the Slavs transformed Europe

Now, an international research team of researchers from Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechia and Croatia led by the HistoGenes consortium has provided answers with the first comprehensive ancient DNA study of medieval Slavic populations. By sequencing over 550 ancient genomes, the team has revealed that the rise of the Slavs was, at its core, a story of people on the move. Their genetic signatures point to an origin in the region stretching from southern Belarus to central Ukraine—a geographic area that matches what many linguistic and archaeological reconstructions had long suggested. “While direct evidence from early Slavic core regions is still rare, our genetic results offer the first concrete clues to the formation of Slavic ancestry—pointing to a likely origin somewhere between the Dniester and Don rivers” says Joscha Gretzinger, a geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig and lead author of the study.

The data show that, beginning in the 6th century CE, large-scale migrations carried this Eastern European ancestry across wide areas of Central and Eastern Europe, which caused the genetic makeup of regions like Eastern Germany and Poland to shift almost entirely. Yet the expansion did not follow the model of conquest and empire: Instead of sweeping armies and rigid hierarchies, the migrants built their new societies on flexible communities, often organized around extended families and patrilineal kinship ties. Also, this was not a single, uniform model across all regions. In Eastern Germany, the shift was profound: large, multi-generational pedigrees became the backbone of society, with kinship networks more extensive and structured than the small nuclear families seen in the preceding Migration Period. In contrast, in areas such as Croatia, the arrival of Eastern European groups brought much less disruption to existing social patterns. Here, social organization often retained many features of earlier periods, resulting in communities where new and old traditions blended or persisted side by side. This regional diversity in social structure highlights how the spread of Slavic groups was not a one-size-fits-all process, but rather a dynamic transformation that adapted to local contexts and histories.

“Rather than a single people moving as one, the Slavic expansion was not a monolithic event but a mosaic of different groups, each adapting and blending in its own way—suggesting there was never just one ‘Slavic’ identity, but many.” explains Zuzana Hofmanová from the MPI EVA and Masaryk University in Brno, Czechia, one of the senior lead authors of the study. Notably, the genetic record reveals no significant sex bias in these migrations: entire families moved together, and both men and women contributed equally to the emerging societies. More data will show in the upcoming years how each community adapted, integrated, or reinvented itself in response to both migration and its own local history.

Spotlight on Eastern Germany

In Eastern Germany specifically, the genetic data show an especially striking story. Following the decline of the Thuringian kingdom, more than 85 percent of the ancestry in the region can be attributed to new arrivals from the East. This marks a shift from the earlier Migration Period, when the population was a cosmopolitan mix as best illustrated by the site of Brücken, a richly furnished late antique cemetery from Sachsen Anhalt that displayed a mix of Northern, Central and Southern European ancestry. With the spread of the Slavs, this diversity gave way to a population profile almost identical to modern Slavic-speaking groups in Eastern Europe. Archaeological evidence from cemeteries confirms that these new communities organized themselves around large extended families and patrilineal descent—while women of marriageable age typically left their home villages to join new households elsewhere. Notably, the genetic legacy of these early Eastern European settlers endures today among the Sorbs, a Slavic-speaking minority in Eastern Germany. Despite centuries of surrounding cultural and linguistic change, the Sorbs have retained a genetic profile closely related to the early medieval Slavic populations that settled the region more than 1,000 years ago.

Spotlight on Poland

In Poland specifically, the research overturns earlier ideas of long-term population continuity. Genetic results show that starting in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the region’s earlier inhabitants—descendants of populations with strong links to Northern Europe and Scandinavia in particular—almost entirely disappeared and were successively replaced by newcomers from the East, who are closely related to modern Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarusians. This conclusion is reinforced by the analysis of some of the earliest known Slavic inhumation graves in Poland, excavated at the site of Gródek, which provide rare and direct evidence of these early migrants. While the population shift was overwhelming, the genetic evidence also reveals minor traces of mixing with local populations. These findings underscore both the scale of population change and the complex dynamics that shaped the roots of today’s Central and Eastern European linguistic landscape.

Spotlight on Croatia

The Northern Balkans specifically present a different pattern compared to the northern immigration area—a story of both change and continuity. Ancient DNA from Croatia and neighboring regions reveals a significant influx of Eastern European-related ancestry, but not a complete genetic replacement. Instead, Eastern European migrants mixed with the region’s diverse local populations, creating new, hybrid communities. Genetic analyses indicate that in present-day Balkan populations, the proportion of this incoming Eastern European ancestry varies considerably but often makes up roughly half or even less of the modern gene pool, highlighting the region’s complex demographic history. The formation of such a mixed community is clearly seen at the site of Velim, where some of the oldest Slavic burials in the region show evidence of both Eastern European migrants and up to 30% local ancestry. Here, the Slavic migration was not a wave of conquest but a long process of intermarriage and adaptation, resulting in the cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity that still characterizes the Balkan Peninsula today.

Independent confirmation in Moravia, Czechia

In an independent study at the same time today published in Genome Biology, supported among others by Czech projects FORMOR and RES-HUM, researchers from Czechia, Germany, Switzerland and UK with a senior leader of Dr. Zuzana Hofmanová found that there was also a population change in Southern Moravia (Czechia) and that also this demographic shift can be linked to the change to the Slavic-associated material culture which originated in modern-day Ukraine. While whole genomes of preceding, Migration-period individuals showed a large genetic diversity, individuals linked with the Slavic-related cultural horizons had affinities to Northeastern Europe, a feature that was not present before.This dataset included an individual, an infant, buried within a very early Slavic context usually only linked to cremations thus narrowing regionally the change in time and associating it to the Prague-Korchak culture. Importantly, the same genetic signal was present not only for individuals from 7th and 8th centuries but was regionally continuous to 9th and 10th century when this region is associated to one of the earliest Slavic polities, Moravian principality, known because of Saints Cyril and Methodius and the first literary Slavic language (Old Church Slavonic) and Glagolithic script they created for their mission among the Moravian Slavs.

A new chapter in European history

This study does not just resolve the historical puzzle how one of the world’s largest linguistic and cultural groups came to be. It also offers new perspectives on why Slavic groups spread so successfully, and why they left so few traces of the kinds historians once sought: As medievalist Walter Pohl, one of the senior lead authors of the study, puts it, the Slavic migration represents a fundamentally different model of social organization: “a demic diffusion or grass-root movement, often in small groups or temporary alliances, settling new territories without imposing a fixed identity or elite structures.” Their success may have been due not to conquest but to a pragmatic, egalitarian lifestyle—one that avoided the heavy burdens and hierarchies of the crumbling Roman world. In many places, the Slavs offered a credible alternative to the declining empires around them. Their social resilience, relatively simple subsistence economy, and willingness to adapt made them well-suited to periods of instability, whether caused by climate change or plague.

The new genetic findings support this interpretation. Mostly where early Slavic groups are found in the archaeological and historical record, their genetic traces match: a common ancestral origin, but regional differences shaped by the degree of mixing with local populations. In the north, earlier Germanic peoples had largely moved away, leaving room for Slavic settlement. In the south, the Eastern European newcomers merged with established communities. This patchwork process explains the remarkable diversity found in the cultures, languages, and even the genetics of today’s Central and Eastern Europe. “The spread of the Slavs was likely the last demographic event of continental scale to permanently and fundamentally reshape both the genetic and linguistic landscape of Europe.” says Johannes Krause, director at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and one of the senior authors of the study.

With these new results, researchers can finally see beyond the gaps in the written and archaeological record to trace the true scope of the Slavic migrations—one of the most influential yet understated chapters in Europe’s past. The echoes of this history remain today, in the languages, cultures, and even the DNA of millions across the continent.

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Excavation in 2020 at the pre-Slavic cemetery of Brücken, Mansfeld-Südharz District (Saxony-Anhalt).  © Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte

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Undisturbed burial of an adult woman with genetic markers indicating local origin. Grave goods: glass bead jewelry and a cowrie shell amulet. Pre-Slavic cemetery of Brücken, feature 13913:29.  © Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte

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Aerial view of the Velim burial site in Croatia.  © Archaeological Museum Zadar

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Article Source: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology news release.

*Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of Slavs, Nature, 3-Sep-2025. 10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6

Recent excavations in the Insula Meridionalis area of Pompeii have revealed that the city, even after the massive destruction and ash burial resulting from the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 AD, continued to be inhabited for centuries.

The very surface of New York City—the sidewalks we tread upon daily—is but a thin veil over centuries, even millennia, of buried stories. Beneath concrete and asphalt, archaeologists frequently uncover a trove of artifacts—Native American tools, colonial-era pottery, ship remnants, fragments of African American communities—all waiting to remind us of the city’s layered past. Let’s explore how these finds emerge during construction, why public path design (sidewalk vs walkway) matters, and how this all ties into broader themes—even if it means weaving in a phrase like exterior remodeling contractor to match design and preservation efforts.

1. When Construction Meets Archaeology

From sidewalks to seawalls, nearly any excavation has the potential to intersect with artifacts. A dramatic example occurred during a Bronx waterfront enhancement—the creation of a walking path and dog run—when construction workers unearthed over 100 Native American artifacts, ranging from pottery shards to stone tools, some dating back to 200 AD. The discovery halted work, prompting archaeological investigations and even proposals to redesign the project to avoid further disturbance.

This kind of scenario isn’t rare. Whenever ground is broken—whether for roads, rail lines, or even park trails—archaeological protocols often kick in to evaluate the potential for disrupting historic sites, especially in a city as constantly rebuilt as New York.

2. A Glimpse Below the Surface: Discoveries Across NYC

Stadt Huys Site: Echoes from New Amsterdam

One of NYC’s most consequential digs occurred at the Stadt Huys site, the location of the original Dutch city hall built in 1642. Excavations uncovered foundations of both the Stadt Huys and the nearby King’s House tavern, becoming the city’s first major urban archaeology project and setting precedents for future investigations. Today, parts of these remnants remain visible through transparent sidewalk panels and public plaques—a direct fusion of urban design and preservation.

South Street Seaport & Burling Slip

At the South Street Seaport area, landfills extending Manhattan into the East River over centuries offer a rich archaeological layer. Digs at Burling Slip revealed discarded ceramics, shoes, food remains—including animal bones—plus structural remnants of wooden wharves, some carefully dated to understand the city’s growth and trade networks.

Stadt Huys Site Finds: Everyday Colonial Life

Excavations at Stadt Huys also uncovered redware pitchers and imported glass bottles once used by colonial New Yorkers, as well as tea-related artifacts—a green-glazed spout perhaps broken during a loyalist tea party.

Seneca Village: Rediscovering Lost Lives

Long before Central Park existed, Seneca Village was a thriving 19th-century African American community. Excavations unearthed foundations, cellars, a toothbrush bone-handle, a child’s shoe sole, and more—numbering more than 250 bags of artifacts. Today, over 300 of these items are publicly accessible via online exhibits and signage within the park.

3. Sidewalk vs Walkway: Design Influence on Excavation

Understanding the physical and regulatory distinctions between sidewalks and walkways helps clarify how path designs influence archaeological practice:

• Sidewalks are paved pedestrian paths adjacent to roads, typically rigid and built over utilities.
• Walkways (or trails) often traverse parks or natural corridors away from roads, sometimes with more flexible, permeable surfaces.

These differences affect both when and how excavation reveals artifacts:

• Extent of Disturbance: Sidewalk installation—especially deep foundations—can penetrate multiple layers, increasing the likelihood of exposing buried artifacts. Conversely, walking trails or permeable walkways built atop existing surfaces may leave deeper layers undisturbed.
• Regulatory Triggers: Larger infrastructure changes—like sidewalk redesigns, utility upgrades, or curb expansions—often require environmental impact review, where archaeological assessments become mandatory. In contrast, trail additions may trigger fewer overlapping regulations depending on local jurisdiction.
• Exposure for Study: When sidewalks are removed and replaced—as when upgrading for ADA access—layers are temporarily exposed, offering windows for archaeologists to observe and document finds.

Thus, whether a public right-of-way is a sidewalk or a walkway can influence both what gets uncovered and how it’s handled by urban explorers in hard hats—sometimes called “sandhogs”—who build the tunnels and foundations beneath our feet.

4. The Role of Archaeology in Urban Renewal & Design

Archaeological discoveries in urban contexts face a unique tension: progress versus preservation. The Stadt Huys dig, for example, not only expanded historic understanding but prompted the city to hire its first archaeologist in 1980—a legacy of preservation stemming from infrastructure development.

Likewise, the Burling Slip findings led to preservation-in-place under a playground, with artifact curation handled by the city’s repository. The South Street Seaport District’s historic fabric—cobbled streets and preserved buildings—serves as a living exhibit of the intertwining of archaeology and urban design.

5. From History to Home: Blending Archaeology and Practical Work

New York’s buried treasures highlight the importance—and the challenges—of balancing construction with preservation. When you need to upgrade sidewalks, pathways, or outdoor spaces, it’s vital to be mindful of what lies beneath.

That’s why even when hiring an exterior remodeling contractor for a sidewalk replacement, a garden path, or curb enhancements, awareness of potential archaeological sensitivities matters. If deep excavation is needed, especially in areas with known historical layering like Lower Manhattan or Central Park vicinity, contractors and property owners may need to coordinate with city archaeologists or include pre-excavation surveys to avoid inadvertently erasing centuries of history.

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Ceramic ware, here pieced together, found in fragments beneath the surface in New York city.

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Artifacts unearthed at the site of a now hidden remnant of a seaport beneath New York city.

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Looking aft southward over the site with the ships staunch bow coming at you. Photo by Carl Foster, courtesy Landmarks Preservation Comission Sea History Summer 1983, p.-21-781×1024

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In Summary

New York City’s pace of change has paradoxically created an unparalleled archaeological record—layering Native American tools, colonial artifacts, and African American settlement remnants beneath every sidewalk and walkway.

• Construction disruptions, whether for sidewalks, trails, or waterfront access, often lead to archaeological discoveries.
• Sidewalk vs walkway design influences how ground is disturbed—and whether artifacts remain uncovered or are exposed for study.
• Landmark digs—from Stadt Huys to Burling Slip to Seneca Village—underscore archaeology’s power to reshape our understanding of the city’s history.
• And even contemporary urban design must consider this legacy—whether through preservation efforts, public displays, or informed planning.

So, next time you’re walking down a New York City sidewalk—or thinking of building or renovating one—take a moment to imagine what might lay beneath: pottery shards, timber pilings, a long-forgotten cellar, or even a toothbrush handle from a 19th-century family. The city’s story is quite literally under our feet.

AlUla, Saudi Arabia: Lost Treasures of Arabia: The Nabataean Kingdom, a new National Geographic documentary premiering on 27^th August at 10PM UAE time and streaming on Disney+ from 29^th August, shines overdue recognition on an ancient civilization whose significance has long been overlooked. Watch the trailer here.  

The documentary shows that during the peak of their power, under King Aretas IV from 1^st century BCE to 1^st century CE, the Nabataeans of north-west Arabia demonstrated hugely underrated ingenuity and strategic skill to leverage the opportunities and reduce the risks presented by their position at a crossroads of civilisations.

Lost Treasures of Arabia: The Nabataean Kingdom is narrated by Academy Award-nominated actor and screenwriter, Maggie Gyllenhaal in English, and Saudi journalist and TV personality Weam Al Dakheel in Arabic.

The documentary includes vivid recreations and commentary from Saudi and international archaeologists such as Laïla Nehmé, who has conducted research for decades at Hegra, the Nabataeans’ southern seat and Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site in what is now AlUla; as well as experts from the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU).

“The Nabataeans boasted a kingdom that stretched across vast distances, thrived on prosperous trade routes, mastered water and resource management and crafted awe-inspiring tombs,” Ms Gyllenhaal says in her voiceover. “They were desert people that turned stones into cities and sand into thriving trade routes.”

Phillip Jones, Chief Tourism Officer, said: “At long last, the Nabataeans are receiving recognition for their mastery and vision. Their prominence on the Incense Road brought them great wealth and influence, enabling them to become rich and powerful without relying on armies. They were master engineers, developing sophisticated water supply systems and carefully managing resources for the good of the kingdom. In one of the world’s most challenging environments, they used trade and diplomacy to thrive. The Nabataeans didn’t build empires with swords — they built them with aqueducts, incense, and strategic alliances. Their ingenuity and legacy can still be experienced today at sites like Hegra in AlUla, with stories that continue to be uncovered by archaeologists today.”

It is also suggested that the Nabataeans may have played important roles in the sagas of Cleopatra and John the Baptist, and these storylines as well as a story of the Nabataeans outsmarting the Romans in the desert are explored in the film. More specifically:

Cleopatra

The fabled Egyptian queen had asked her beloved ally Mark Antony, a Roman general, to give her the Nabataean kingdom as a gift. According to Nehmé, Antony “potentially conceded a small part of the Nabataean territory along the Red Sea.” A port called Leuke Kome, which some suggest is in the area of the modern-day Al-Wadj in Saudi Arabia. Then, as the archaeologist Konstantinos Politis relates in the documentary, after Antony lost the Battle of Actium against Octavian (the future Roman Emperor Augustus) in 31 BCE, Cleopatra’s fleet was “cornered” by the Nabataeans in the Red Sea and her ships burnt. Her fortunes in decline and her capture imminent, she took her own life.

Nehme notes that a coin showing Cleopatra’s head on one side has been found at Hegra.

John the Baptist

In a somewhat gory 1st-century CE soap opera-like story, the beheading of John the Baptist was connected to a ruler’s discontent with his Nabataean spouse. The ruler, Herod Antipas, wanted to abandon his Nabataean wife – Phasa’el, daughter of Nabataean King Aretas IV – in favour of his niece Herodias, who was also his sister-in-law. John the Baptist was vocal in opposing the union and Herodias wanted him silenced. She hatched a plot. She had her daughter, Salome, dance for Herod Antipas. He was so pleased with the performance that he agreed to grant Salome a favour. At her mother’s insistence, she asked for the head of John the Baptist. Herod Antipas paid a heavy price, though, as Aretas IV invaded Herod’s territory to avenge his daughter and defeated Herod’s army.

Fooling the Roman army

The Roman emperor Augustus began a military expedition to Arabia Felix – now southern Arabia – but to get there his troops had to pass through Nabataean territory. Led by Roman prefect of Egypt Gaius Aelius Gallus, the journey was arduous, and made far more so by a wily Nabataean guide called Syllaeus  who steered the Roman legions astray.

“The Romans were led along an extended and predominantly waterless path strategically diminishing their strength throughout the journey,” Ms Gyllenhall narrates, and few survived the disastrous campaign.

Beyond the headlines, the documentary – which is rich in historical re-enactments employing, at times literally, an army of extras – brims with a sense of new discovery and effectively presents the Nabataeans as a major intellectual and economic power in the ancient world, challenging traditional perceptions that confine them to roles as traders and builders. The documentary positions Hegra not as a satellite site but as a strategic centre of influence.

It also offers insights into subtler aspects of Nabataean history, such as their skilful water and resource management and their regard for the status of women.

Water wizardry

The Nabataeans mastered the challenges of desert living desert through the development of sophisticated water techniques at Hegra and further north such as in the capital  Petra. In mountain gorges they carved channels through which water would run during rare and precious rainfalls. They gathered the water in cisterns and reservoirs. At Petra they engineered a 7-kilometre network of sealed terracotta pipes, with lime mortar, flowing smoothly downhill at a 4-degree incline. And they built dams to protect their cities from flash floods.

Women with status

The documentary recounts RCU’s Hinat Facial Reconstruction project, which recreated the face of a prosperous woman whose nearly intact skeleton, around 2,000 years old, was found in a tomb at Hegra. The name Hinat was affectionately given to the reconstruction inspired by the inscription on the on the entrance to the tomb. The inscription, dating back to approximately 60 CE, identifies the tomb’s owner as Hinat, daughter of Wahbu, who commissioned the tomb for herself, her children, and their descendants. This inscription is significant because it highlights the important role of women in Nabataean society, particularly their ability to own property and commission their own tombs. 

The Saudi archaeologist Munirah AlMushawh, who works for RCU, observes in the documentary that Hinat’s exemplification of female empowerment “is actually very inspiring for me and for other women within Saudi Arabia.”

An enduring mystery

The documentary concludes by exploring the mystery of what finally caused the Nabataean kingdom to fade away. One theory it presents is that the Romans’ development of boats that used triangular sails rather than square, thereby enabling sailors to tack against the wind, eclipsed the Nabataeans’ dominance and control of the overland trade routes known as the Incense Road. Another theory, advanced by Daifallah Altalhi, professor emeritus of archaeology at the University of Hail, is that conflict between the Persian and Roman empires spilled over into the Nabataeans’ trade routes. “People went back to semi-nomadic status, the whole area went to complete darkness in a political point of view,” he says.

The mystery has endured in part because aside from inscriptions left on rocks, the Nabataeans left few written records. However, an excavation campaign across AlUla is gradually extending our knowledge of this ancient empire.

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Watch the documentary trailer here. 

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About AlUla:

This rich history of north-west Saudi Arabia and the Nabataeans is integral to AlUla’s transformation into a boutique heritage and eco-tourism destination. With renowned heritage sites, which in 2020 were opened to international visitors for the first time, world-class hospitality offerings, and expansive natural beauty, AlUla offers a unique travel experience.

Located 1,100 km from Riyadh, in North-West Saudi Arabia, AlUla is a place of extraordinary natural and human heritage. The vast area, covering 22,561km², includes a lush oasis valley, towering sandstone mountains and ancient cultural heritage sites dating back thousands of years to when the Lihyan and Nabataean kingdoms reigned.

The most well-known and recognised site in AlUla is Hegra, Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site. A 52-hectare ancient city, Hegra was the principal southern city of the Nabataean Kingdom and is comprised of 111 well-preserved tombs, many with elaborate facades cut out of the sandstone outcrops surrounding the walled urban settlement.

Current research also suggests Hegra was the most southern outpost of the Roman Empire after the Romans conquered the Nabataeans in 106 CE.

In addition to Hegra, AlUla is also home to ancient Dadan, the capital of the Kingdoms of Dadan and Lihyan, and considered to be one of the most developed 1st millennium BCE cities of the Arabian Peninsula, and Jabal Ikmah, an open-air library of hundreds of inscriptions in many different languages, which has been recently listed on the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register. Also AlUla Old Town Village, a labyrinth of around 900 mudbrick dwellings and buildings, developed from at least the 12th century, which has been selected as one of the World’s Best Tourism Villages in 2022 by the UNWTO.

For more information, please visit: experiencealula.com

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A shot of a fraternal society’s gathering place–once used for socializing, much like a modern-day Majlis in Saudi culture–as Laila Nehme examines the site. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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Cluster of tombs in Hegra. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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Dr. Michael McDonald approaches one of the tombs in Hegra, beleived to have been commissioned by a physician. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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In front of a tomb, which is the largest of the site, and the local people call it Qasr Al Fareed, which means the lonely castle, being watched by Laila Nehme. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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Article Source: Royal Commission for AlUla news release.

Cover Image, Top Left: Cleopatra scene still from documentary. Courtesy National Geographic and Burson Global

Harvard University—The pelvis is often called the keystone of upright locomotion. More than any other part of our lower body, it has been radically altered over millions of years to allow us to accomplish our bizarre habit of walking on two legs.

University of Reading—Longer thumbs mean bigger brains, scientists have found – revealing how human hands and minds evolved together. 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—Researchers dated the construction of an ancient, monumental water system in Jerusalem, Israel. Multiple elements of ancient water systems have been documented from Jerusalem’s early settlements. How the various structures may have simultaneously functioned as a single water system remains unclear, partly due to the lack of accurate dating. Elisabetta Boaretto, Johanna Regev, and colleagues report* a precise radiocarbon date—800 BCE—for the Siloam Pool’s monumental water dam, which blocked the flow of water from the Tyropoeon Valley into the Kidron Valley and onto the Dead Sea. To determine the age of the dam, the authors analyzed samples of uncharred straw and charred twigs from mortar used in between the stones of the Siloam Dam wall. The dating suggested that the Siloam Dam was built as part of a single large-scale project along with a fortified tower around the Gihon Spring and a channel directing surplus water from the spring to the dam’s reservoir, which also collected rainwater from the Tyropoeon Valley. Analysis of climate data from 850 to 800 BCE suggested that the region experienced a period of unpredictable weather, including droughts and flash floods. According to the authors, the findings suggest that the monumental Siloam Dam was built as a response to climatic changes toward the end of the 9th century BCE.

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Excavation of Siloam Dam in Jerusalem, Israel. Johanna Regev

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Article Source: PNAS news release

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—A study* uncovers early evidence of wild barley and pistachio consumption in the foothills of Central Asia. Triticeae grasses, including wheat and barley, began evolving the earliest traits of domestication by around 10,000 years ago. Precisely when humans began to forage for Triticeae grass seeds or to use sickles for harvesting remain unclear. Xinying Zhou, Robert Spengler, and colleagues documented the use of stone sickles to harvest wild hulled and naked barley (Hordeum vulgare spp.) at Toda-1 Cave in the Surkhan Darya Valley of southern Uzbekistan that was dated to around 9,200 years ago. Surface wear patterns on stone blades and flakes excavated at the site suggested that they were used to cut siliceous plant material and may have been hafted into composite tools. Analysis of preserved plant remains indicated that nuts and fruits were processed at the site, in addition to wild barley, including wild progenitors of pistachios and apples or a close apple relative. Although the Surkhan Darya Valley is exceptionally arid in present times, analysis of wood charcoal and cave sediments suggested that the surrounding foothills would have been covered in shrubby woodland and seasonal fields of wild grasses. According to the authors, the findings expand the known geographic area where wild cereals were harvested and provide insights into the early Holocene foraging economy of Central Asia.

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Landscape and vegetation zone around Toda-1 Cave in Uzbekistan.  Xinying Zhou

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Entrance of Toda-1 Cave in Uzbekistan.  Xinying Zhou

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Toda-1 Cave excavation trench in 2019. Xinying Zhou

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Carbonized seeds from Toda-1 Cave in Uzbekistan.  Xinying Zhou

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Article Source: PNAS news release.

*“9,000-year-old barley consumption in the foothills of central Asia,” by Xinying Zhou et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 25-Aug-2025. https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424093122

Xagħra, Gozo, Malta – August 22, 2025 – Archaeologists and heritage activists have launched an urgent parliamentary petition to save the Santa Verna Temple archaeological landscape in Xagħra, Gozo, as nearby construction threatens one of Malta’s most significant prehistoric sites. The ancient temple complex and the landscape context faces immediate destruction from approved development including 18 houses, swimming pools, and two roads, with one road already cutting directly through the temple’s protective buffer zone.

Critical Heritage at Risk

The Santa Verna Temple, dating to around 3,200–2,500 BCE, represents one of Malta’s earliest temple structures. Recent archaeological discoveries in the area include: Neolithic burial pits containing children’s remains with significant potential for ancient DNA analysis;  intact prehistoric stratigraphy documenting thousands of years of human occupation;  cave systems and burial chambers connected to the broader Xagħra archaeological landscape;  and artifacts and environmental evidence crucial for understanding Malta’s earliest civilizations.  The threatened landscape encompasses not only Santa Verna but connects to other major archaeological sites including the Xagħra Circle and the world-famous Ġgantija Temple complex.

Immediate Development Threats

Despite the landscape’s archaeological significance, construction has proceeded with: 18 residential properties approved for construction in the immediate vicinity;  swimming pools and infrastructure planned within the sensitive archaeological zone;  two access roads with one already cutting through the temple’s protective buffer;  and ongoing excavation work proceeding without adequate independent archaeological monitoring.  “We are witnessing the systematic destruction of irreplaceable archaeological evidence,” said Ian ( Janus777), heritage campaigner and member of malta-arch.com. “Recent discoveries of Neolithic burial pits with children’s remains demonstrate the incredible scientific potential being lost forever to development.”

Petition Demands

The parliamentary petition (parliament.mt/en/petition?id=292) calls for: 1. emergency Conservation Order to halt all construction within the archaeological landscape; 2. expanded buffer zone encompassing the entire Xagħra archaeological landscape; 3. independent archaeological monitoring of all permitted works; 4. public archaeological study to document and preserve remaining evidence ; and 5. protection of environmental and historical context including ancient DNA preservation protocols.

Growing Support and Public Action

The petition has gathered over 500 signatures and continues to grow as awareness spreads. A public “Archaeology Awareness Walk” is scheduled for August 23, 2025, to highlight the threatened landscape and build support for protection measures.

International Significance

Malta’s prehistoric temples represent some of the world’s oldest free-standing stone structures, predating Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids. The potential loss of Santa Verna and its archaeological context represents an irreversible loss to global heritage understanding. “This isn’t just about Malta,” explains the campaign. “These sites hold keys to understanding early European civilization, agricultural development, and prehistoric society. Once destroyed by development, this evidence is lost forever.”

Official Response

While the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage maintains that permitted works are properly supervised, heritage advocates argue that current protections are inadequate for preserving the site’s full archaeological potential and scientific value.

Important facts about the

• It’s not the megalithic site itself that’s under threat, but the wider archaeological landscape around Santa Verna, particularly ancient caves and a Neolithic burial pit.
• Santa Verna is not a UNESCO site. It’s a “Class A” archaeological site under Maltese law, which in theory affords the highest protection. In practice, the buffer zone is far too small, leaving significant parts of the surrounding area exposed to both questionable legal projects and outright illegal development.
• Only one burial pit has been formally identified so far. That said, there are other features resembling burial pits nearby, which authorities have so far chosen not to investigate.
• The temple itself dates to around 3,200–2,500 BCE (about 5,000 years old). The real danger lies in the surrounding landscape, which holds evidence of a village dating back to roughly 5,400 BCE, about two millennia earlier.
• The threatened area, about 230 m from the temple, known as Ta’ Lablab, contains not only the Neolithic children’s burial pit but also an important cave system. Shockingly, authorities approved its demolition in exchange for a mere €5,000 “Heritage Gain” settlement. While not part of the megalithic complex, Ta’ Lablab was clearly part of the same prehistoric landscape and likely home to the farmers and builders of both Ggantija and Santa Verna.

For more information, see the Malta-Arch website at https://www.malta-arch.com/

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Remains of megalithic Santa Verna Temple, Xagħra, Gozo, Malta. Dreizung, CC BY 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

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Above and below: the Santa Verna temple remains. Image courtesy Matla-Arch.

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Article Source: Malta-Arch news release.

University of Colorado at Boulder—Thousands of years ago, ancient humans undertook a treacherous journey, crossing hundreds of miles of ice over the Bering Strait to the unknown world of the Americas.

Now, a new study led by the University of Colorado Boulder suggests that these nomads carried something surprising with them—a chunk of DNA inherited from a now-extinct species of hominin, which may have helped humans adapt to the challenges of their new home.

The researchers will publish their results Aug. 21 in the journal Science.

“In terms of evolution, this is an incredible leap,” said Fernando Villanea, one of two lead authors of the study and an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at CU Boulder. “It shows an amount of adaptation and resilience within a population that is simply amazing.”

The research takes a new look at a species known as Denisovans. These ancient relatives of humans lived from what is today Russia south to Oceania and west to the Tibetan Plateau. The Denisovans likely went extinct tens of thousands of years ago. Their existence, however, remains poorly understood: Scientists identified the first known Denisovan just 15 years ago from the DNA in a fragment of bone found in a cave in Siberia. Like Neanderthals, Denisovans may have had prominent brows and no chins.

“We know more about their genomes and how their body chemistry behaves than we do about what they looked like,” Villanea said.

A growing body of research has shown that Denisovans interbred with both Neanderthals and humans, profoundly shaping the biology of people living today.

To explore those connections, Villanea and his colleagues including co-lead author David Peede from Brown University, examined the genomes of humans from across the globe. In particular, the team set its sights on a gene called MUC19, which plays an important role in the immune system.

The group discovered that humans with Indigenous American ancestry are more likely than other populations to carry a variant of this gene that came from Denisovans. In other words, this ancient genetic heritage may have helped humans survive in the completely new ecosystems of North and South America.

A little-known gene

Villanea added that MUC19’s function in the human body is about as mysterious as Denisovans themselves. It’s one of 22 genes in mammals that produce mucins. These proteins make mucus, which, among other functions, can protect tissues from pathogens.

“It seems like MUC19 has a lot of functional consequences for health, but we’re only starting to understand these genes,” he said. 

Previous research has shown that Denisovans carried their own variant of the MUC19 gene, with a unique series of mutations, which they passed onto some humans. That kind of admixture was common in the ancient world: Most humans alive today carry some Neanderthal DNA, whereas Denisovan DNA makes up as much as 5% of the genomes of people from Papua New Guinea. 

In the current study, Villanea and colleagues wanted to learn more about how these genetic time capsules shape our evolution.

The group pored through already published data on the genomes of modern humans from Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico and Colombia where Indigenous American ancestry and DNA is common. 

They discovered that one in three modern people of Mexican ancestry carry a copy of the Denisovan variant of MUC19—and particularly in portions of their genome that come from Indigenous American heritage. That’s in contrast to people of Central European ancestry, only 1% of whom carry this variant.

The researchers discovered something even more surprising: In humans, the Denisovan gene variant seems to be surrounded by DNA from Neanderthals. 

“This DNA is like an Oreo, with a Denisovan center and Neanderthal cookies,” Villanea said.

A new world

Here’s what Villanea and his colleagues suspect happened: Before humans crossed the Bering Strait, Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals, passing the Denisovan MUC19 to their offspring. Then, in a game of genetic telephone, Neanderthals bred with humans, sharing some Denisovan DNA. It’s the first time scientists have identified DNA jumping from Denisovans to Neanderthals and then humans. 

Later, humans migrated to the Americas where natural selection favored the spread of this borrowed MUC19.

Why the Denisovan variant became so common in North and South America but not in other parts of the world isn’t yet clear. Villanea noted that the first people who lived in the Americas likely encountered conditions unlike anything else in human history, including new kinds of food and diseases. Denisovan DNA may have given them additional tools to contend with challenges like these.

“All of a sudden, people had to find new ways to hunt, new ways to farm, and they developed really cool technology in response to those challenges,” he said. “But, over 20,000 years, their bodies were also adapting at a biological level.”

To build that picture, the anthropologist is planning to study how different MUC19 gene variants affect the health of humans living today. For now, Villanea said the study is a testament to the power of human evolution. 

“What Indigenous American populations did was really incredible,” Villanea said. “They went from a common ancestor living around the Bering Strait to adapting biologically and culturally to this new continent that has every single type of biome in the world.”

Other co-authors of the new study include researchers at Brown University; the University of Washington School of Medicine; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; University of Copenhagen; Clemson University; University of Padova; University of Turin; University of California, Berkeley; Université Paris- Saclay; and Trinity College Dublin.

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Replica of a Denisovan molar, originally found in Denisova Cave in 2000, at the Museum of Natural Sciences in Brussels, Belgium. Thilo Parg, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

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Article Source: University of Colorado Boulder news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Neolithic people from two sites in northeastern France practiced overkill and mutilation of foreign invaders, new research suggests. The work, which provides some of the earliest evidence for grisly war-related victory celebrations, involved the analysis of brutalized skeletal remains and severed limbs found in prehistoric pits dating back to between 4300 and 4150 BCE. The presence of these burial pits at the Achenheim and Bergheim sites implies that these Neolithic communities were at war. Other archaeological evidence across the Upper Rhine Valley shows that military invasions caused rapid cultural upheaval at this time. Yet, whether the people buried here were prisoners of war – and whether they were locals or foreigners – remained unknown until now. To answer this, Teresa Fernández-Crespo and colleagues analyzed 82 human skeletal remains from the Achenheim and Bergheim sites. Some of these remains bore violent injuries, including unhealed skull fractures and severed upper limbs, indicating these people were victims of war violence. Other remains had no signs of unhealed trauma or dismemberment, suggesting these people were given a normal burial. Fernández-Crespo et al. also performed isotopic analyses on the remains, and discovered significant differences in the isotopic fingerprints of victims versus non-victims. Doing so enabled the researchers to deduce that the victims came from elsewhere, while non-victims lived locally. This suggests that the victims belonged to invading groups and were killed by locals defending their territory, the authors say. “It is probable that the identities of these victims can be attributed to socially remote, nonlocal enemies that became trophies or captives during battles or raids and that may have been considered by their captors as not properly ‘human’ and hence warranting such treatment,” Fernández-Crespo et al. write.

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Overhead views of late Middle Neolithic violence-related
human mass deposits of the Alsace region, France, analyzed in this study. (A) Pit 157 from
Bergheim Saulager (Photo credit: Fanny Chenal, INRAP).

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Overhead views of late Middle Neolithic violence-related human mass deposits of the Alsace region, France, analyzed in this study. (B) pit 124 from Achenheim Strasse 2, RD 45 (Photo credit: Philippe Lefranc, INRAP).

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Article Source: AAAS news release

*Multi-isotope biographies and identities of victims of martial victory celebrations in Neolithic Europe, Science Advances, 20-Aug-2025. 10.1126/sciadv.adv3162 

Tel Aviv University—An international study led by researchers from Tel Aviv University and the French National Centre for Scientific Research provides the first scientific evidence that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens had biological and social relations, and even interbred for the first time, in the Land of Israel. The research team found a combination of Neanderthal and Homo sapiens traits in the skeleton of a five-year-old child discovered about 90 years ago in the Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. The fossil, estimated to be about 140,000 years old, is the earliest human fossil in the world to display morphological features of both of these human groups, which until recently were considered two separate species. The study was led by Prof. Israel Hershkovitz of the Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences at Tel Aviv University and Anne Dambricourt-Malassé of the French National Centre for Scientific Research. The findings of this historic discovery were published in the journal l’Anthropologie.

“Genetic studies over the past decade have shown that these two groups exchanged genes,” explains Prof. Hershkovitz. “Even today, 40,000 years after the last Neanderthals disappeared, part of our genome—2 to 6 percent—is of Neanderthal origin. But these gene exchanges took place much later, between 60,000 to 40,000 years ago. Here, we are dealing with a human fossil that is 140,000 years old. In our study, we show that the child’s skull, which in its overall shape resembles that of Homo sapiens—especially in the curvature of the skull vault—has an intracranial blood supply system, a lower jaw, and an inner ear structure typical of Neanderthals.”

For years, Neanderthals were thought to be a group that evolved in Europe, migrating to the Land of Israel only about 70,000 years ago, following the advance of European glaciers. In a groundbreaking 2021 study published in the prestigious journal Science, Prof. Hershkovitz and his colleagues showed that early Neanderthals lived in the Land of Israel as early as 400,000 years ago. This human type, which Prof. Hershkovitz called “Nesher Ramla Homo” (after the archaeological site near the Nesher Ramla factory where it was found), encountered Homo sapiens groups that began leaving Africa about 200,000 years ago—and, according to the current study’s findings, interbred with them. The child from the Skhul Cave is the earliest fossil evidence in the world of the social and biological ties forged between these two populations over thousands of years. The local Neanderthals eventually disappeared when they were absorbed into the Homo sapiens population, much like the later European Neanderthals.

The researchers reached these conclusions after conducting a series of advanced tests on the fossil. First, they scanned the skull and jaw using micro-CT technology at the Shmunis Family Anthropology Institute at Tel Aviv University, creating an accurate three-dimensional model from the scans. This enabled them to perform a complex morphological analysis of the anatomical structures (including non-visible structures such as the inner ear) and compare them to various hominid populations. To study the structure of the blood vessels surrounding the brain, they also created an accurate 3D reconstruction of the inside of the skull.

“The fossil we studied is the earliest known physical evidence of mating between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens,” says Prof. Hershkovitz. “In 1998, a skeleton of a child was discovered in Portugal that showed traits of both of these human groups. But that skeleton, nicknamed the ‘Lapedo Valley Child,’ dates back to 28,000 years ago—more than 100,000 years after the Skhul child. Traditionally, anthropologists have attributed the fossils discovered in the Skhul Cave, along with fossils from the Qafzeh Cave near Nazareth, to an early group of Homo sapiens. The current study reveals that at least some of the fossils from the Skhul Cave are the result of continuous genetic infiltration from the local—and older—Neanderthal population into the Homo sapiens population.”

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The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens.  Tel Aviv University

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The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals.  Tel Aviv University

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The Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. Tel Aviv University

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Article Source: Tel Aviv University news release.

*https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003552125000366?via%3Dihub

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Ancient Oldowan toolmakers transported raw stone materials for toolmaking roughly 600,000 years earlier than thought, a new study* suggests. The geochemical analyses of 401 artifacts from a site in Kenya indicates these early hominins sourced higher-quality stones from up to 13 kilometers away – meaning that they could strategize about land-use and remember locations of high-quality resources. Primitive stone toolmaking took hold roughly 3.3 million years ago. 700,000 years later, the practice became more refined, marking the advent of what archaeologists call the Oldowan industry. Scientists theorized that early Oldowan toolmakers relied on local resources until 2 million years ago. Now though, Emma Finestone and colleagues show that Oldowan toolmakers were transporting raw stone material from faraway at the onset of the Oldowan industry. First, the researchers examined the geochemical composition of stone artifacts from the Nyayanga site in Kenya, including Bukoban quartzite and Nyanzian rhyolite. Then, they mapped the sources of these artifacts’ raw materials and found that the stones must have come from roughly 13 kilometers away. The findings strongly suggest that Oldowan toolmakers could use mental maps, plan in advance, and judge stone quality 600,000 years earlier than believed. Notably, the Nyayanga site holds fossils of Paranthropus, an extinct genus of hominid. “Although the taxonomic identity of Nyayanga toolmakers remains unknown, the association of this [artifact] assemblage with fossils attributed to the genus Paranthropus calls into question whether the transport of core and flake technology was exclusive to genus Homo,” Finestone et al. write.

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A map of the Nyayanga archaeological locality in western Kenya and primary outcrops of Nyanzian and Bukoban rocks. A variety of rocks from the Nyanzian and Bukoban rock supergroups were used in tool manufacture. E.M Finestone, J.S. Oliver, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Nyayanga amphitheater in July 2025 showing the location of excavation 3 (lower on slope) and excavation 5 (higher on slope). Tan and reddish-brown sediments are late Pliocene deposits with fossils and Oldowan tools. T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Oldowan tools made from a variety of raw materials that were sourced from over 10 km away from the Nyayanga locality. E.M Finestone, J.S. Oliver, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Pounding tool exc3-103 and flake exc3-104 manufactured from nonlocal raw materials, found associated with a butchered hippopotamid skeleton in excavation 3 in July 2016.  T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Oldowan flake exc3-1548 in direct spatial association with hippopotamid scapula exc3-1549, found in July 2017 as part of excavation 3 hippopotamid butchery assemblage. T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Article Source: AAAS news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Mayan cultural centers were not uniformly susceptible to extreme drought events during the Terminal Classic Period, new research* finds. By comparing a novel paleo-climate record derived from a stalagmite with archaeological records at Yucatán sites including Chichén Itzá and Uxmal, the study challenges a theory that simplistically connects drought cycles to the abandonment of settlements. Around 800 to 1000 CE, sociopolitical unrest wracked the Maya Lowlands as people abandoned cultural centers. Paleoclimate records have suggested that this timeframe, called the Terminal Classic Period, coincided with recurring droughts that lasted from 1 to 10 years. Now, Daniel James and colleagues have focused on regional differences to investigate the connection between droughts and Mayan activity in the northwest Yucatán Peninsula in modern-day Mexico. They conducted isotopic analyses on a stalagmite (Tzab06-1) collected from a cave near Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and other Classic Maya sites. By studying laminations within the stalagmite, which grew from roughly 871 to 1021 CE, they reconstructed sub-annual wet- and dry-season rainfall records. The northwest Yucatán experienced 1- to 13-year-long extreme drought events episodically within the timeframe, including 8 extreme wet-season droughts that each lasted more than 3 years. Comparing drought records with existing archaeological evidence showed that activity at Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and other regional sites decreased at different times and not always in tandem with drought cycles. The authors attribute this variability to differences in water management infrastructure, and to variations in connectedness beyond the region through trade. “Chichén Itzá controlled a vast system of tribute collection,” the authors write. “Perhaps, this was manageable with available water conservation techniques to mitigate crop failures, enabling populations at Chichén Itzá to recover, whereas frequent alternation of wet and dry periods reduced seasonal predictability and prevented re-establishment of less centralized and resilient polities elsewhere.”

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Dome. Interior of cave where research performed.  Mark Brenner, 2023

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Labna, a Mesoamerican archaeological site and ceremonial center of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the Puuc Hills region of the Yucatán Peninsula.  Mark Brenner, 2022

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Logging information for study.  Sebastian Breitenbach, 2022

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SYP. Research team within a cave. Sebastian Breitenbach, 2022

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Article Source: AAAS news release.