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University of Seville—A multidisciplinary team of Spanish and Portuguese archaeologists and artificial intelligence experts has combined non-destructive archaeological measurement techniques, machine learning and Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) tools to develop an AI system applicable to archaeological research. In this specific case, to investigate the provenance of archaeological samples of variscite, a mineral with a characteristic green color highly appreciated in Prehistory and distributed by extensive exchange networks throughout Western Europe between the sixth and second millennium BC. It was used to make necklaces, bracelets, rings… Items of personal adornment in general.

This group of researchers has been collaborating for years to find out where variscite comes from in the different archaeological sites of the Iberian Peninsula. To do this, they compare current geological samples of variscite with samples found in archaeological excavations. They analyze the mineral, record its elements, and then compare the small chemical variations they present. Based on the similarities, it is possible to determine from which place it has been extracted.

The study*, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, is led by the University of Lisbon and has the participation of the Milá y Fontanals Institution for Research in the Humanities (IMF-CSIC), the University of Seville, the University of Alcalá and the the CIPAG (a Spanish acronym that stands for “Collective for the Research of Prehistory and Archaeology of Garraf-Ordal”).

A unique geochemical footprint in each mine

The innovation of this study lies in the use of AI to analyze the results of the chemical composition. “Our model learns to recognize the unique geochemical footprint of each mine. It is able to identify where a prehistoric bead comes from, even thousands of years after it was manufactured,” explains Daniel Sánchez-Gómez, a researcher at the University of Lisbon and lead author of the study. Thanks to this pioneering approach, they have been able to predict with 95% accuracy the geological origin of archaeological objects made with variscite.

In this way, the team has built the most extensive compositional database created to date, with more than 1,800 geological samples and 571 archaeological accounts, which have been analyzed using portable X-ray fluorescence.

To process the data, they used a random forest algorithm,  which is very commonly used in Machine Learning, which has allowed them to achieve unprecedented precision. In addition, explains Ferrán Borrell, an archaeologist at the IMF-CSIC, “something very remarkable about this project is that the information has been uploaded to Zenodo [an open repository developed under the European OpenAIRE program and operated by CERN], so that other researchers can use that data and make their own interpretations. It is working with open science.”  Ferran Borrell directs the excavation project of the prehistoric variscite mines in Gavà (Spain), from which part of the samples studied come from.  

The results have made it possible to reinterpret prehistoric trade routes. Now, the researchers explain, we can know that the mines of Gavà (Barcelona, Spain) and Aliste (Zamora, Spain) were the main production and distribution centers; that the traditionally cited source of Encinasola (Huelva, Spain) would have been of lesser importance; and that the materials found in Brittany (France) probably come from the north of the Iberian Peninsula, suggesting trans-Pyrenean land routes, rather than the maritime ones proposed so far.

“We have used explainable artificial intelligence techniques, which allow AI models, especially the most complex ones, to explain in a clear and understandable way how they make their decisions. In the case of our research, this means that it not only accurately predicts, but also shows us which chemical elements were decisive in each classification, bringing transparency and rigor to archaeological interpretation,” adds Carlos Odriozola, professor at the University of Seville and PI of the project. This methodological framework, called VORTEX (Variscite Origin Recognition Technology X-ray based), opens up new possibilities for the study of the provenance of other archaeological materials, such as amber, and constitutes a milestone in the application of artificial intelligence to cultural heritage.

Now, according to Manuel Edo Benaiges, co-author of the article, we must try to address the following questions: What was the reason for the expansion phenomenon of the green stone? How did this expansion through Western Europe occur over time? Where did it start? The interpretations are many, always with the common goal of knowing more about the past. “It’s not just about green beads: it’s about using artificial intelligence to tell the human stories of prehistory,” concludes Sánchez-Gómez.

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Article Source: University of Seville news release.

Medieval cities were vibrant, noisy, crowded, and full of contradictions. They were hubs of trade, art, craftsmanship, and political power—but also centers of disease, fire hazards, pollution, and constant struggle for basic sanitation. Yet, despite their chaotic reputation, medieval towns were not lawless. In fact, medieval authorities—kings, city councils, guilds, and local courts—created extensive regulations to protect urban life. Their rules shaped housing, hygiene, trade, marketplaces, and even personal behavior.

Understanding how medieval cities managed public health and daily life gives us a fascinating look into early urban governance, and it shows that even centuries ago, communities recognized the need for regulations—something reflected today in modern frameworks such as local law 10/11 westchester county, which similarly aims to maintain safe, healthy living environments through building and safety codes.

Let’s step inside a medieval city to explore how ordinary people lived and the rules that shaped their daily lives.

I. Life Inside the Walls: The Urban Landscape

Medieval cities were almost always enclosed by thick defensive walls. Entering through a city gate meant stepping into a dense maze of:

• Narrow streets, often muddy or uneven
• Timber houses, leaning precariously inward
• Shops and workshops, spilling onto walkways
• Markets, full of noise, animals, and smells
• Churches and monasteries, dominating the skyline

This physical layout influenced everything—public health, fire risks, water distribution, and social interactions. Because space was limited and expanding city walls was expensive, medieval urban planners had to think creatively about regulations long before modern zoning existed.

II. Housing and Urban Planning

1. Building Codes (Yes, Even in the Middle Ages!)

Contrary to popular belief, medieval authorities did impose building regulations. These laws controlled:

• How far upper floors could extend over streets
• Which materials were allowed (stone preferred over flammable timber)
• Where waste outlets could be placed
• How close neighbors could build

For example, in 12th–14th century London, Paris, and Italian city-states, it was illegal to build wooden houses without firebreaks. Stone and tile roofs became mandatory in many areas after major urban fires.

2. Multi-Story Living

As cities grew crowded, houses expanded vertically. Shops were often on the ground floor, with families living above. Wealthier families decorated their facades, while poorer residents shared cramped rooms, sometimes with entire extended families.

3. Renting and Tenancy Rules

Landlords were common. Medieval tenancy agreements established:

• Basic maintenance responsibilities
• Limits on how many animals tenants could keep
• Rules on shared courtyards and wells

These were early versions of modern occupancy and safety codes.

III. Public Health: A Constant Battle

Public health was a major concern in medieval cities—especially as population density increased.

1. Water Supply Systems

Water came from:

• Wells (public or private)
• Rivers or streams
• Aqueducts in wealthier cities (e.g., Rome’s medieval renovations or Islamic cities)

City councils regulated who could access public wells and fined those who contaminated them. Washing animal parts or dumping waste into a communal water source was punishable by law.

2. Waste Management: More Organized Than You Might Think

Waste was an enormous issue, but cities implemented various solutions:

a. Cesspits and Privies

Most homes had cesspits, which needed regular emptying by designated workers called gong farmers in England. Regulations required homeowners to maintain their pits and prevented them from being built too close to wells.

b. Street Cleaning

City councils hired laborers to remove:

• Mud
• Manure
• Household waste
• Dead animals

Guilds were often responsible for keeping the area near their workshops clean. Residents who threw garbage out of windows—common behavior—faced fines.

c. Butchers and Tanners

Slaughterhouses, tanneries, and dye works created toxic waste. Medieval laws restricted them to specific districts near rivers, often downstream from the drinking supply.

3. Disease Control and Quarantine

The Black Death (1347–1351) transformed urban governance.

Cities introduced:

• Quarantine laws for ships and travelers
• Pest houses for the sick
• Restrictions on gatherings
• Appointment of plague doctors and city health officers

Italian city-states like Venice pioneered quarantine islands and health boards—early versions of public health departments.

IV. Food Safety and Market Regulations

Markets were the heart of urban life—socially and economically. To protect consumers, medieval authorities imposed detailed rules.

1. Baker and Brewer Regulations

Using short measures or producing low-quality food was a crime. In England, the Assize of Bread and Ale (13th century) set official standards for:

• Weight and price of bread
• Quality of ale
• Hygiene in bakeries

Offending bakers were placed in the pillory, a public humiliation.

2. Butchers and Fishmongers

Food spoilage was common, so officials—called market inspectors or tasters—checked products daily. Selling rotten meat or fish was punishable by fines, confiscation, or banning from the market.

3. Weights and Measures

Cities maintained standardized weights to prevent fraud. Merchants caught cheating customers faced harsh penalties.

V. Environmental and Air Quality Regulations

Smoke and smell were constant problems.

1. Smoke Control

Bans were placed on burning specific fuels within city limits, especially coal in 14th-century London due to air pollution. Blacksmiths, fullers, and lime burners were sometimes pushed outside the walls.

2. Noise Regulations

Nighttime peace was important. Laws restricted:

• Late-night tavern gatherings
• Street musicians after curfew
• Loud workshop activities

VI. Fire Prevention: A Top Priority

Fire was the greatest danger to medieval cities. Regulations included:

• Mandatory night curfews to extinguish hearth fires
• Firefighting equipment (hooks, ladders, buckets) stored in public squares
• Stone or brick construction in high-risk areas
• Bans on thatched roofs in many cities

Cities often employed night watchmen to detect fires early.

VII. Policing, Courts, and Everyday Rules

1. Night Watch and Curfews

Most European cities required citizens to carry lanterns after sunset. Gates were locked at night, and curfews controlled movement to prevent crime.

2. Guild Regulations

Guilds enforced:

• Work hours
• Product quality
• Apprenticeship rules
• Use of specific tools and materials

This created a structured workforce and predictable economic system.

3. Moral and Social Regulations

Authorities also controlled:

• Tavern hours
• Gambling
• Prostitution
• Public drunkenness
• Carrying weapons

These rules aimed to maintain order and moral discipline.

VIII. Community Responsibility and Civic Duty

Medieval urban life depended on cooperation. Citizens were expected to:

• Join firefighting efforts
• Maintain street cleanliness outside their homes
• Participate in watch duty
• Contribute to wall repairs
• Help fund bridges, wells, and public buildings

Civic pride drove improvements in public services, boosting public health and safety.

IX. Lessons From Medieval Urban Management

Although medieval cities lacked modern science and technology, they developed surprisingly sophisticated systems for managing urban life. Their rules were born out of necessity: the need to keep people safe in dense settlements where disease, fire, and pollution were constant threats.

Many principles remain relevant today:

• Building codes prevent structural hazards
• Sanitation regulations protect public health
• Market rules ensure safe, fair commerce
• Environmental laws safeguard communities

Just as medieval cities used ordinances to maintain order, modern communities rely on contemporary frameworks—including regulations like local law 10/11 westchester county—to ensure buildings are safe, habitable, and compliant with essential health standards. Urban governance has evolved, but the core mission remains the same: protecting the people who live within the city’s boundaries.

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Stepping inside a medieval city reveals a world both familiar and alien. Streets bustling with merchants, homes stacked atop shops, wells shared among neighbors, and officials attempting to enforce order amidst chaos. Public health rules, housing regulations, and everyday laws shaped the medieval urban experience just as modern regulations shape ours today.

From fire prevention to food safety, medieval cities laid the foundation for many of the laws and systems we consider essential in today’s urban life. Their legacy lives on in the regulations that continue to keep our cities safe, healthy, and livable.

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Cover Image, Top Left: johnNaturePhotos, Pixabay

University of Zurich—A new paper by evolutionary anthropologists Colin Shaw (University of Zurich) and Daniel Longman (Loughborough University) argues that modern life has outpaced human evolution. The study* suggests that chronic stress and many modern health issues are the result of an evolutionary mismatch between our primarily nature-adapted biology and the industrialized environments we now inhabit.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—A study* uncovers the inner nasal anatomy of a Neanderthal skeleton from Italy. The morphology of the nasal cavity of Neanderthals has been purported to represent distinctive adaptations to cold climates. However, fossil evidence of the inner nasal morphology in Neanderthals is lacking, preventing a direct assessment of adaptations. Costantino Buzi, Giorgio Manzi, and colleagues report the complete preservation of the inner nasal structure in a Neanderthal fossil skeleton from the Lamalunga karstic system, located near Altamura in southern Italy. The specimen is between 130,000 and 172,000 years old, and its inner nasal morphology was recorded and digitally reconstructed by using endoscopic technology on site. Previous hypotheses proposed that Neanderthals would have unique structures, such as a vertical medial projection and a swelling on the nasal cavity walls. The Altamura specimen showed no such features, ruling out the features as distinctive traits of the Neanderthal nasal anatomy. Further, the authors analyzed the anatomical factors underlying the characteristic Neanderthal midfacial morphology and concluded that it is unlikely to be directly shaped by upper respiratory adaptations. According to the authors, the findings reframe aspects of Neanderthal functional anatomy and provide a basis for modeling Neanderthal respiratory performance.

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Frontal view of the Neanderthal cranium from Altamura (southern Italy). Credit: K.A.R.S.T. PRIN Project

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Digital reconstruction of the right nasal hemicavity (in yellow) of the Neanderthal cranium from Altamura (transparent, superimposed). Credit: Costantino Buzi

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Article Source: PNAS news release.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—A study* suggests that pre-Columbian peoples and European colonists influenced the abundance of tree species within Amazon forests. For thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, around the year 1550, pre-Columbian Indigenous peoples were growing crops and modifying forests through activities such as burning. Crystal N. H. McMichael and colleagues examined the ecological legacy of colonization. The authors explored how pre-Columbian and colonial-period activity may have influenced the abundance of tree species in present-day forests. Using archaeological records, historical accounts, and climate data, the authors constructed models to predict the likely locations of pre-Columbian settlements prior to 1550 as well as colonial settlements from 1600 to 1920. The authors compared the models with the occurrence of 262 tree species surveyed in 1,521 plots throughout the Amazon basin. Trees considered useful, such as species used in the construction industry, tended to be more abundant in plots in which the probability of pre-Columbian and colonial settlements was higher. Some species were enriched in the pre-Columbian era but less abundant in areas with predicted colonial settlements. The findings could provide insights into the extent to which forests were shaped by past human activity. Such insights could help determine whether forests are mature or recovering and gauge the extent of their ability to contribute to carbon sequestration, according to the authors.

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The Ecuadorian Amazon taken from a canopy tower at the top of a Ceiba pentandra tree. Credit: Mark Bush

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Amazonian forest. Credit: Crystal McMichael

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Article Source: PNAS news release.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—Researchers report* a clay figurine from around 12,000 years ago, showing early advances in symbolic representation. Despite being rare, depictions of human–animal interactions in Paleolithic artwork can provide insights into the role of animals in human mythology and economy. Laurent Davin and colleagues report the discovery of a figurine from around 12,000 years ago—during the Late Paleolithic Period—that depicts a woman and a goose. The figurine comes from an archaeological site in northern Israel that also contained remains of geese, with evidence of hunting, butchering, and feather use. Through technological, archaeometric, and dermatoglyphic analyses, the authors found that the figurine was meticulously modeled from clay by a young adult who used innovative techniques. Notably, the use of volume and light to create perspective appear earlier in the figurine than in other examples. The figurine also represents the earliest known depiction of a woman in Southwestern Asian artwork, represented naturalistically rather than in a stylized fashion. Further, the figurine depicts a mythological scene rather than a hunting scene, suggesting an animistic belief system and an advance in symbolic representation in cultural objects. According to the authors, the figurine pushes back in time artistic innovations that came to define the subsequent Neolithic Period.

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The 12,000-year-old Natufian clay figurine from Nahal Ein Gev II, depicting a woman and a goose. Credit: Laurent Davin

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Artistic reconstruction of the 12,000-year-old Natufian clay figurine from Nahal Ein Gev II, depicting a woman and a goose. Credit: Laurent Davin and Vic Oh

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Article Source: PNAS news release.

*“A 12,000-year-old clay figurine of a woman and a goose marks symbolic innovations in Southwest Asia,” by Laurent Davin, Natalie D. Munro, and Leore Grosman, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 17-Nov-2025. https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2517509122

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—As human groups migrated and settled across Holocene Eurasia, dogs often traveled with them, researchers report in a new genomic study* – and sometimes dogs were traded among populations. The study reveals the integral role these animals played in culture and exchange. For at least the last 11,000 years, dogs and humans have lived side-by-side. However, the true antiquity of their association with humans remains elusive. Some evidence suggests that major dog lineages in different parts of the world appear to have diversified thousands of years earlier, suggesting that these dogs may have traveled with humans as they colonized different parts of Europe, Asia, and the Arctic, forming integral parts of the cultural and biological exchanges of early migrations. To explore how dogs and humans moved together, Shao-Jie Zhang and colleagues sequenced 17 ancient dog genomes dated between 9,700 and 870 years ago from sites across Siberia, the Central Eurasian Steppe, and northwest China, regions that experienced major shifts in human ancestry and culture during the Holocene. These new genomes were analyzed alongside 57 previously published ancient dog genomes, 160 modern dog genomes, and 18 ancient human genomes, which allowed Zhang et al. to explore how ancient dog lineages intersected with human migrations and cultural exchanges. The findings show that the movement of domestic dogs across the Eurasian Steppe, East Asia, and Eastern Siberia often coincided with the migrations of hunter-gatherers, farmers, and pastoralists, suggesting that dogs very commonly travelled alongside humans and were integrated into diverse societies. Some mismatches between dog genetic lineage and human population histories indicate that communities with different ancestries likely exchanged dogs with one another. This was particularly true for Arctic-lineage dogs, which were found among hunter-gatherer groups with differing ancestries across Eurasia.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—While the range of physical diversity dogs show is often thought to be the result of intense breeding over the last 200 years, a new study – based on tracing 50,000 years of canid skull evolution – suggests domestic dogs began developing their distinctive forms thousands of years before humans started shaping modern breeds. Dogs at this time were shaped by early human influence, environmental shifts, and changing food sources. The origins and early diversification of domestic dogs are among the most debated topics in archaeology. Previous studies indicate that dogs first appeared during the Late Pleistocene, with major distinct genetic lineages appearing by at least 11,000 years before present. Because of their long association with humans, modern dogs exhibit an exceptional range of physical diversity, in both size and shape. It’s thought that much of this diversity is the direct result of intense breeding that happened in recent centuries. However, exactly when distinct dog variation first began to take shape is poorly understood and has been limited by the scarcity of Pleistocene specimens, the fragmentary condition of available remains, and the challenge of distinguishing early dogs from wolves based solely on skeletal morphology.

To trace how the physical forms of domestic dogs developed and diversified over time, Allowen Evin and colleagues used advanced 3D morphometric analysis to examine 643 canid skulls spanning 50,000 years, allowing them to measure subtle differences in skull shape and size with exceptional precision. By creating digital 3D models through laser scanning or photogrammetry, Evin et al. compared specific cranial features across ancient and modern dogs and their wild relatives. The findings* show that distinct dog-like skull traits first appeared during the early Holocene, evidenced by 10,800-year-old remains recovered in Russia. Notably, all of the Ice Age canid skulls examined closely resembled wolves, suggesting that although visible domestication traits appeared only after 11,000 years ago, the process of domestication likely began earlier during the late Pleistocene, which is consistent with genetic evidence. The oldest known dogs from the Mesolithic and Neolithic possessed skulls that fell within the modern range of sizes but were typically smaller and less varied, lacking exaggerated traits that characterize many present-day breeds. Even so, their diversity was surprising; early Holocene dogs exhibited roughly half the morphological range seen in modern dogs and twice that of their Pleistocene wolf ancestors, suggesting that notable variation in dog form had already emerged millennia before modern breeding practices. The retention of wolf-like characteristics in some modern breeds highlights the gradual and complex evolution of the dog from their wild wolf ancestors. Evin et al. also found that ancient wolves were more varied in skull shape and size than they are today. “The domestication of dogs has captivated attention because of the close bonds that many humans share with dogs,” Melanie Fillios writes in a related Perspective. “[Evin et al.’s] research contributes to the wider understanding of domestication as a complex, multifaceted biological and cultural process in which thousands of years of human and animal history are intertwined.”

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Photograph of an archaeological canid skull (top) and a modern dog skull (bottom) used for the photogrammetric reconstruction of 3D models in the study. Credit: C. Ameen (University of Exeter)

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Static visualisation of skull shape differences between modern dogs (pink) and modern wolves (green), shown relative to an average morphology. Credit: C. Brassard (VetAgro Sup/Mecadev)

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Article Source: AAAS news release.

*The emergence and diversification of dog morphology, Science, 13-Nov-2025. 10.1126/science.adt0995

Every brick, beam, and stone has a story to tell — sometimes buried for centuries beneath layers of plaster and paint. When archaeologists and restoration experts come together, these silent witnesses of history begin to whisper again. Across the world, historic property restorations are not merely about preserving architecture; they are about reviving the memories, technologies, and traditions that shaped our collective past.

The Meeting Point of Archaeology and Architecture

At first glance, archaeology and property restoration may appear to belong to separate worlds. Archaeologists dig into the ground to uncover relics of lost civilizations, while restorers rebuild what has been damaged or neglected. Yet, both disciplines share the same goal — to preserve and interpret the human story embedded within structures and landscapes.

When restorers open up the walls of an old mansion or repair the flooring of a centuries-old church, they often encounter hidden layers of the past. From ancient pottery shards beneath foundations to forgotten murals concealed behind drywall, each discovery deepens our understanding of how people once lived, worked, and worshiped.

For example, in many European cities, restoration projects on old properties have led to the discovery of Roman roads, medieval artifacts, and even entire subterranean rooms. These findings reshape not only our architectural heritage but also our view of urban evolution.

When Restoration Becomes an Excavation

The process of restoring a historical building is often as revealing as an archaeological dig. As craftsmen and conservators peel away layers of decay, they uncover traces of earlier craftsmanship — carvings, tool marks, hidden inscriptions, or evidence of fire and repair.

In England, the restoration of Tudor-era homes has often exposed medieval timber framing beneath later brickwork. Similarly, in Italy, Renaissance-era palazzos have revealed mosaics and frescoes dating back to the Roman Empire.

Such revelations demonstrate that every restoration is, in essence, an excavation of time — peeling back centuries of human occupation and adaptation. The architecture becomes a living document, each layer recording a different chapter in history.

Case Study: The Power of Preservation

One fascinating example is the restoration of the 18th-century Hôtel de la Marine in Paris. While preparing the building for public reopening, conservators discovered original wall paintings and hidden decorative motifs that had been covered for over 200 years.

These discoveries not only enhanced the building’s authenticity but also guided decisions about color schemes, materials, and furniture restoration. Instead of guessing what the space looked like, experts could now rely on tangible evidence — the whispers of the walls themselves.

In the United States, similar cases abound. The restoration of historic homes in cities like Boston, Charleston, and New Orleans frequently reveals hidden staircases, bricked-up fireplaces, and forgotten servant quarters. Archaeologists working alongside restoration specialists ensure that these finds are documented and preserved before construction continues.

Such collaborative projects highlight the importance of interdisciplinary work. Restoration without archaeological insight risks erasing evidence of earlier periods, while archaeology without restoration often leaves sites exposed and vulnerable to decay.

Listening to the Materials

Sometimes the whispers come not from artifacts, but from the materials themselves. The type of mortar used, the shape of nails, or the grain of wood can reveal astonishing details about the era of construction and the people who built it.

For instance, lime-based mortars used in medieval buildings differ significantly from the Portland cement introduced in the 19th century. By analyzing the chemical composition, experts can determine the original construction methods and replicate them faithfully.

This approach is essential to authentic restoration, which aims not just to make buildings look old but to truly respect their historical integrity. Each stone and beam becomes a primary source of information — a physical clue to the builder’s techniques, tools, and resources.

Cultural Memory Hidden in Architecture

Every civilization leaves behind its architectural fingerprints. In India, temple restorations have revealed ancient carvings depicting forgotten rituals. In Egypt, the conservation of mud-brick houses in Thebes has exposed evidence of daily life during the reign of pharaohs. In the American Southwest, Pueblo restorations have unearthed ancestral pottery fragments hidden within walls, perhaps placed there as symbolic offerings.

These findings remind us that architecture is not just about structure — it is about identity. The spaces people build reflect their values, beliefs, and social structures. To restore a building, therefore, is to restore memory itself.

Even the most modest farmhouse may contain traces of cultural continuity — patterns of repair, reuse of older materials, or secret symbols etched into wood for protection. Every restoration project becomes an act of rediscovery, revealing how human beings across ages adapted to changing needs while preserving traditions.

Modern Technology in Historical Restoration

Today, modern science has amplified our ability to hear the whispers of ancient walls. Techniques like ground-penetrating radar (GPR), 3D laser scanning, and infrared thermography allow specialists to see inside walls without damaging them. These tools can detect voids, hidden rooms, and structural weaknesses — even remnants of previous buildings beneath current foundations.

Digital reconstruction tools can simulate how ancient properties once looked, helping restorers plan accurate interventions. In some cases, virtual reality models allow historians and architects to “walk through” past versions of a building to better understand its evolution.

This blend of technology and tradition defines the future of both archaeology and property restoration. It enables a deeper respect for authenticity while preventing unnecessary destruction of original materials.

The Role of Skilled Craftsmanship

While technology provides insights, the heart of restoration still lies in human craftsmanship. The hands of stonemasons, carpenters, and artisans breathe life into dormant structures. Their expertise connects the past and present — using traditional tools and methods to repair what time has worn away.

A number of specialized companies around the world focus on this blend of archaeology-informed restoration and artisan skill. For instance, Price Brothers restoration has earned recognition for combining historic building preservation with structural expertise, ensuring that restoration efforts maintain the spirit and authenticity of original designs while meeting modern safety standards.

Such organizations demonstrate how restoration can go beyond aesthetics — becoming a moral commitment to safeguarding heritage.

Ethics and Challenges in Restoring the Past

Restoring historical properties presents ethical dilemmas. Should a building be returned to its original state, or should restorers preserve evidence of all its historical phases? For example, a medieval castle may contain Renaissance modifications and Victorian additions. Which era should take precedence?

Most modern conservationists advocate for the principle of minimal intervention — doing only what is necessary to stabilize and conserve, not to recreate or alter. This approach ensures that the building remains a genuine record of its journey through time.

Moreover, funding and resources are constant challenges. Many heritage sites remain at risk due to neglect or urban development. Public awareness and government policies play crucial roles in ensuring that restoration projects receive the attention they deserve.

Learning from the Whispers

The beauty of property restoration guided by archaeology lies in the stories it reveals. Beneath every coat of paint may lie evidence of a different century. Behind every cracked wall may rest a clue to forgotten craftsmanship.

When we restore old properties, we do not simply rebuild walls — we rebuild connections to our ancestors. We learn about their ingenuity, their resilience, and their relationship with the environment. Every restoration project thus becomes an archaeological dialogue between the living and the dead, between today’s architects and yesterday’s builders.

Building the Future with the Past

“When Walls Whisper” is more than a poetic metaphor — it is an invitation to listen. Each restoration project offers a chance to rediscover what time tried to conceal. When archaeologists and restorers collaborate, they bridge centuries of human history, ensuring that the past remains a tangible part of our shared present.

As cities evolve and old structures face the pressures of modernization, our responsibility grows. By integrating archaeology into restoration, we not only preserve buildings — we preserve the soul of civilization.

The whispers of the walls remind us that history is never silent; it speaks softly through the stones, waiting for someone to listen.

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Cover Image, Top Left: oljamu, Pixabay

India’s landscape is a living museum — where every stone, pillar, and ruined wall whispers tales of forgotten kingdoms, lost battles, and enduring legacies. Across the subcontinent, time stands still in the remnants of ancient forts, deserted cities, and abandoned palaces. These silent witnesses of history allow modern travelers to experience a kind of time travel — stepping into eras when kings ruled with valor, architects built with vision, and traders carried silks, spices, and stories across continents.

This journey through India’s abandoned heritage sites isn’t just about ruins; it’s about rediscovering the soul of a civilization that once flourished in unimaginable grandeur.

1. Rajasthan: The Kingdom of Ghost Cities and Silent Forts

No other region in India tells the story of lost royalty like Rajasthan. Behind its golden deserts and lavish palaces lie towns that time itself seems to have abandoned.

Kuldhara – The Cursed Village

Near Jaisalmer lies Kuldhara, a village abandoned overnight more than 200 years ago. Legend says that the entire Paliwal Brahmin community fled after a tyrannical ruler tried to marry one of their daughters by force. Before leaving, they cursed the land, declaring no one would ever live there again.

Today, the crumbling sandstone homes and empty lanes stand untouched, preserving an eerie silence. Archaeologists studying the site found evidence of advanced water channels and trade systems, suggesting Kuldhara was once prosperous — its desertion remains one of India’s enduring mysteries.

Bhangarh Fort – The Most Haunted Fort in India

Nestled between Jaipur and Alwar, Bhangarh Fort is perhaps the most famous ghost town in India. Built in the 16th century by Raja Madho Singh, the fort’s beautiful architecture hides a legend of love, sorcery, and destruction. The Archaeological Survey of India even restricts visitors after sunset, adding to its allure.
Wandering through its empty marketplaces, temples, and royal residences feels like walking through a film set frozen in time — a vivid reminder of how myth and history intertwine in Indian archaeology.

Chittorgarh Fort – Pride, Power, and Tragedy

Spread over 700 acres, Chittorgarh Fort stands as the largest fort in India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Though not entirely abandoned, its ruins tell stories of sacrifice and resilience. Three times, the fort faced sieges from powerful rulers — and each time, its women committed jauhar (self-immolation) to protect their honor.
The haunting ruins of the Victory Tower, Rana Kumbha’s Palace, and Padmini’s Palace speak of the indomitable spirit of Rajput pride.

Exploring Rajasthan’s ruins often ends with a peaceful evening in a desert village, where locals still cherish their traditional Tea Rituals — preparing strong, spiced chai brewed over open flames while recounting ghostly tales under the stars.

2. Madhya Pradesh: The Heart of India’s Ancient Majesty

Madhya Pradesh, known as the “Heart of India,” is rich in archaeological marvels that blend mythology, architecture, and imperial grandeur.

Mandu – The City of Joy

Perched on the Malwa Plateau, Mandu was once a pleasure resort of the Mughal era. Its grand palaces, such as the Jahaz Mahal (“Ship Palace”), look as if they float on water. In the 15th century, Mandu flourished under Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Khilji, who built palaces for his queens and surrounded them with gardens and lakes.
Today, the remains of mosques, pavilions, and stepwells echo the laughter of a bygone era. The love story of Baz Bahadur and Rani Roopmati, immortalized in songs, gives the site a romantic charm even amid decay.

Orchha – Frozen in Time

On the banks of the Betwa River, Orchha appears as though it has been forgotten by time. Once the capital of the Bundela kings, the town boasts majestic temples and cenotaphs (chhatris). The Jahangir Mahal and Raja Mahal stand proudly despite centuries of neglect, their murals fading like memories.
The sound of temple bells still drifts through the air, blending with the chirping of birds — a hauntingly beautiful reminder that faith often outlasts empires.

3. Maharashtra: The Forgotten Fortresses of the Sahyadris

The rugged Western Ghats of Maharashtra are home to some of India’s most formidable hill forts, each echoing tales of Maratha valor.

Raigad Fort – The Throne of Shivaji Maharaj

Standing 2,700 feet above sea level, Raigad Fort was once the capital of Chhatrapati Shivaji’s empire. The ruins of the royal chambers, markets, and the coronation platform (Nagarkhana Darwaza) still inspire awe. Despite the ravages of time, Raigad remains a sacred site for Marathas, who climb its steep steps each year to honor their king.
The fort’s breathtaking view of the Sahyadris reminds visitors of Shivaji’s strategic genius and the rise of indigenous power in India’s medieval era.

Lohagad and Visapur – Twin Guardians of the Western Ghats

Near Lonavala, these twin forts stand as silent witnesses to centuries of warfare. Lohagad, meaning “Iron Fort,” dates back to the Satavahana period. The fort changed hands between the Mughals and Marathas several times, and its massive gates still bear the scars of battle.

Hiking to these forts during the monsoon is an ethereal experience — mist envelops the walls, and nature reclaims the stone. At the summit, travelers often pause for steaming cups of tea, keeping alive age-old Tea Rituals that connect moments of reflection with the aroma of Indian hospitality.

4. Karnataka: The Forgotten Empire of Vijayanagara

Hampi – The Ruined Splendor

A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Hampi was once the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, one of South India’s mightiest dynasties. In the 14th–16th centuries, it was a thriving metropolis of art, trade, and spirituality.
Today, the boulder-strewn landscape holds the ruins of palaces, bazaars, and over 1,600 monuments. The Vittala Temple, with its stone chariot and musical pillars, showcases unmatched craftsmanship. The Virupaksha Temple, still active, stands as a bridge between the past and present.

Despite being destroyed in 1565 after the Battle of Talikota, Hampi’s ruins still hum with life at sunset — when golden light spills over ancient granite and time itself feels suspended.

Bidar – The Neglected Gem

Further north, Bidar Fort in Karnataka was once the capital of the Bahmani Sultanate. Its Persian-inspired architecture, intricate stucco work, and massive bastions reveal the sophistication of Indo-Islamic design.
Though partly in ruins, Bidar’s historical aura is unmatched. Local legends say its waters once contained healing minerals, drawing travelers from faraway lands.

5. Gujarat: Echoes of Trade and Civilization

Dholavira – The Desert City of the Harappans

Located in the Rann of Kutch, Dholavira is one of the most significant archaeological discoveries in India. Dating back over 4,500 years, it was part of the Indus Valley Civilization. Excavations revealed a remarkably advanced urban system — with water reservoirs, sewage networks, and a unique script carved on sandstone.

Unlike other Harappan sites, Dholavira survived in isolation for centuries before being rediscovered in the 20th century. Walking through its geometric streets feels like traveling thousands of years into the past — a glimpse into one of the earliest organized cities in human history.

Champaner-Pavagadh – A Lost Capital

Hidden near Vadodara, Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park offers a fusion of Hindu and Islamic architectural styles. Built in the 15th century by Sultan Mahmud Begada, it was once a flourishing capital before being mysteriously abandoned. The site includes mosques, stepwells, palaces, and city gates — all preserved in near-perfect symmetry.
Today, the complex stands amidst thick forests and quiet hills, reminding visitors of the fleeting nature of human ambition.

6. North India: The Lost Capitals of Power

Fatehpur Sikri – Akbar’s Dream City

Built by Emperor Akbar in 1571, Fatehpur Sikri near Agra was designed as a grand imperial city. For 14 years, it flourished as the Mughal capital, blending Persian aesthetics with Indian craftsmanship. However, due to water shortages, Akbar was forced to abandon it.

The city remains one of India’s best-preserved examples of Mughal architecture. The Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, and Jodha Bai’s Palace still evoke Akbar’s vision of religious tolerance and cultural unity.

Rakhigarhi – The Cradle of Civilization

Located in Haryana, Rakhigarhi is believed to be the largest Indus Valley Civilization site in India. Excavations unearthed evidence of planned streets, drainage systems, and pottery dating back to 2600 BCE. It provides valuable insights into early urban planning and social organization — reshaping our understanding of the Harappan world.

7. Eastern India: Temples and Cities Lost in Time

Konark – The Sun Temple of Stone

In Odisha, the Konark Sun Temple stands as a colossal chariot carved from black granite. Built in the 13th century by King Narasimhadeva I, it once had a giant magnet at its apex that held the iron idol of the Sun God suspended in air.
Though partially ruined, Konark’s architectural genius still dazzles scholars and travelers alike. The intricate carvings depict not just deities but daily life — an archaeological testament to the artistic brilliance of medieval India.

Sisupalgarh – India’s Ancient Urban Center

Near Bhubaneswar lies Sisupalgarh, one of the oldest fortified cities in the world, dating back over 2,500 years. Excavations revealed planned streets, moats, and gateways — indicating advanced governance long before the Mauryan Empire.

8. Rediscovering Heritage: How Archaeology Keeps Time Alive

The ruins of India are more than tourist destinations — they are classrooms without walls. Each site holds a lesson about engineering, sustainability, and artistry that continues to inspire modern architects and historians.
Archaeological efforts in India, led by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), use cutting-edge technologies like drone mapping, ground-penetrating radar, and carbon dating to reveal what lies beneath layers of dust and time.

Preservation, however, is an ongoing battle. Rapid urbanization, climate change, and neglect threaten many of these treasures. Awareness and responsible tourism are key to ensuring that future generations can continue to “time travel” through these ruins.

9. The Soul of Exploration: Blending Past and Present

Visiting India’s abandoned forts and cities isn’t just a historical excursion — it’s a sensory experience. The scent of rain on old stone, the echo of footsteps in empty corridors, and the taste of roadside tea brewed by locals form an emotional tapestry that connects past and present.

In Rajasthan, Gujarat, or Madhya Pradesh, explorers often pause amid ruins to enjoy simple Tea Rituals — brewing spiced chai as their ancestors might have centuries ago. This small act bridges the gap between eras, reminding us that while empires fall and cities vanish, traditions endure.

Closing Reflections

India’s abandoned forts and cities are not relics of loss — they are symbols of continuity. They remind us that civilizations may crumble, but culture survives in the stories we tell, the art we preserve, and the rituals we pass on.
To walk through these ruins is to touch eternity — to feel the heartbeat of ancient India still pulsing beneath layers of stone and silence.

So, the next time you stand before a crumbling fort wall or deserted palace courtyard, close your eyes and listen. The past isn’t gone — it’s waiting, whispering through the wind, ready to share its secrets with those who choose to listen.

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Cover Image, Top Left:  Vijayanarasimha, Pixabay

New York City’s skyline is a living timeline of architectural evolution — from colonial-era churches and brownstones to soaring glass towers that reach into the clouds. Yet beneath all its modern innovation, NYC’s architecture shares something with ancient civilizations: a deep respect for materials, structure, and longevity.

When we look back at ancient temples — from the Parthenon in Greece to the temples of Luxor in Egypt — we find the same questions being asked that New York’s architects and engineers still face today: How do you build something that lasts? How do you ensure the integrity of the structure when centuries of wear, weather, and change test its strength?

Let’s explore what these timeless marvels reveal about building materials and structural longevity, and how their lessons still apply to modern construction and restoration work across New York City.

1. The Power of Natural Materials

Ancient builders didn’t have the advantage of modern steel, concrete additives, or advanced composites. Yet their structures have survived thousands of years — because they chose materials with enduring properties.

• Stone was the cornerstone (literally) of temple construction. In Greece and Rome, marble and limestone were preferred for their strength and beauty.
• Granite was used in Egyptian temples due to its hardness and resistance to erosion.
• Sandstone and clay bricks were used in Mesopotamia and India, where availability dictated construction choices.

In New York City, we see similar principles at play. The city’s limestone façades, granite foundations, and brick brownstones echo the ancient preference for natural, durable materials.

For instance, buildings like Grand Central Terminal and the New York Public Library were built with materials chosen not just for appearance but also for their ability to withstand time and pollution — much like the Parthenon’s marble, which endures wind and rain after millennia.

2. Engineering for Longevity

Ancient temples weren’t just built to stand — they were engineered with astonishing precision.

The Romans perfected the arch, distributing loads in ways that prevented collapse. The Greeks used post-and-lintel construction, aligning columns and beams to carry immense weight while maintaining symmetry and balance.

The Egyptians used a tapered pyramid form to distribute pressure downward evenly — a design that remains structurally sound even as millennia pass.

Modern engineers in New York City face similar challenges, especially in renovating historic buildings or reinforcing aging structures. When restoring older homes, maintaining the right load distribution is crucial to prevent sagging floors or foundation shifts — problems ancient architects solved with geometry, proportion, and careful material selection.

3. The Foundation Is Everything

If there’s one thing ancient builders understood better than most modern renovators, it’s this: the strength of a structure depends on its foundation.

Many ancient temples were built on bedrock or solid stone platforms, chosen specifically to prevent settlement or shifting. For example:

• The Temple of Karnak in Egypt sits on a base that channels away floodwater from the Nile.
• The Acropolis of Athens rests on solid limestone, providing unmatched stability.

In New York City, foundations play a similar role. Given the city’s varying subsoil — from solid schist in Manhattan to sandier layers in Queens — architects must adapt their foundation design carefully.

Historic buildings in Brooklyn and Harlem often face foundation wear, leading to floor dips or cracked beams. Modern restoration experts apply principles not unlike those used in ancient times: distribute weight, stabilize the base, and use the most resilient materials available.

4. Understanding Load-Bearing Structures

Temples of the ancient world were often load-bearing structures, meaning the walls and columns supported the entire weight of the roof.

The Parthenon’s Doric columns, for example, weren’t just decorative — they bore the roof’s load with mathematical precision. Every stone block was shaped to fit perfectly with the next, distributing forces evenly.

In NYC’s older brownstones and pre-war buildings, the load-bearing concept is still visible. Before the advent of steel-framed skyscrapers, entire facades and interiors relied on brick or stone walls to carry the structure’s weight.

When renovating such properties, modern engineers must respect these original designs — reinforcing beams and joists without disrupting the building’s natural load path.

5. Resisting the Elements

One of the most remarkable aspects of ancient temples is how they resisted natural elements — earthquakes, floods, wind, and erosion — long before modern technology existed.

For instance:

• Greek temples were built with slightly curved columns (entasis) to prevent visual distortion and structural weakness.
• Roman temples incorporated drainage systems and weathering details to manage rainwater.
• Indian temples used stone interlocking techniques to absorb earthquake shocks.

Similarly, New York’s architecture must withstand drastic climate shifts — from summer humidity to freezing winters. Building restoration experts focus on waterproofing, sealing cracks, and replacing decayed beams or joists to maintain long-term stability.

The principle is timeless: anticipate nature’s wear and build for endurance.

6. The Role of Craftsmanship

Ancient temples weren’t just feats of engineering; they were masterpieces of craftsmanship. Builders used simple tools but relied on precise measurement, skilled labor, and artistic vision.

Every stone was hand-carved, every column aligned by eye and string — yet their precision rivals modern laser-guided systems.

In New York City, this craftsmanship echoes through time. The city’s brownstones, cast-iron facades, and limestone trims show the same commitment to detail. Restoration specialists today work like archaeologists — carefully uncovering original elements, cleaning, stabilizing, and reassembling pieces just as ancient builders once did.

7. Sustainability: The Forgotten Wisdom

Interestingly, ancient architecture was inherently sustainable. Builders used local materials, designed for natural light, and ensured ventilation through open courtyards and columned halls.

Modern NYC construction is rediscovering these same principles. The city’s green building movement — emphasizing energy efficiency, recycled materials, and adaptive reuse — mirrors ancient sustainable logic.

Temples were built to last thousands of years without maintenance, whereas many modern buildings struggle after mere decades. The secret lies in material integrity, proportion, and respect for natural conditions — values worth reviving today.

8. Lessons for Modern New York

New York City’s ancient inspiration can be seen in its neoclassical architecture — from City Hall to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, whose grand columns pay homage to Greek temples.

But beyond style, there’s a philosophical connection: durability over decoration.

Whether it’s reinforcing an old townhouse or restoring a pre-war apartment, modern builders are learning from the ancients that longevity begins at the structural core.

That means choosing materials that age gracefully, designing for flexibility, and maintaining structures with care — just as ancient temple keepers did.

9. Preserving New York’s Architectural Heritage

The city’s preservationists often act as modern-day archaeologists. Every renovation uncovers hidden stories — old floor joists, hand-cut beams, forgotten basements — each revealing how early New Yorkers built to endure.

Organizations like the New York Landmarks Conservancy and Historic Districts Council ensure that restoration follows historically accurate practices while integrating modern safety and strength standards.

When you walk through Greenwich Village or along Brooklyn Heights, you’re seeing living history — much like walking among the ruins of an ancient city still alive with purpose.

10. The Modern Connection: Repairing the Foundation of the Future

Just as ancient temples stood the test of time through balance, precision, and durable materials, New York’s homes and buildings require the same care to stand for generations more.

When a building’s floor begins to sag or creak, or when old joists weaken with age, it’s not unlike a temple’s foundation beginning to crumble. Restoration experts bring modern science and ancient wisdom together — repairing, reinforcing, and revitalizing what time tries to erode.

If your NYC home or historic property shows signs of structural wear, it might be time to call in professionals who understand both tradition and technology. You can start by searching for floor joist repair near me to connect with trusted experts who can help ensure your building remains as enduring as the great temples of history.

Closing Reflection

Ancient temples were built not only to house gods but also to defy time — to stand as eternal symbols of human ingenuity. In many ways, New York City’s architecture continues that same quest.

Each building, old or new, is a temple of modern life — a reflection of what we value, how we build, and how we preserve. By studying the wisdom of the ancients, we can ensure that our own structures — and our city — continue to stand strong for centuries to come.

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Cover Image, Top Left: The Parthenon.  timeflies1955, Pixabay

Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona—The production of El Argar pottery was organized in specialised workshops located next to specific clay deposits, far from the main centres of power. This production model reinforces the existence of a complex, hierarchical, supra-local organisation in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula during the Bronze Age.

Most of the pottery recovered from political and administrative centers in El Argar (2200-1550 BCE), such as Tira del Lienzo and Ifre, located in the province of Murcia, was not produced locally, but rather at sites located in the coastal mountains of the southeastern peninsula. This is the conclusion reached by a research team from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) in a study* published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, which analyses the composition and circulation of the raw materials used to produce the characteristic pottery of El Argar.

The study contradicts the prevailing idea that each community produced its own pottery using materials available in its immediate surroundings, and reinforces the idea of a complex and hierarchical social and economic system.

“Most pieces, especially the more standardised forms such as cups and jars, were made from red clay formed by the climatic alteration of metamorphic rocks or schists during the warm Pliocene period, and found in the coastal mountains of Murcia, Almeria, and Granada”, explains David Gomez, researcher in the Department of Geology and co-author of the study. “Pottery made from this very distinctive type of clay became exclusive from 1900 BCE onwards, when El Argar reached its peak in terms of territorial expansion and economic development”, says Carla Garrido, predoctoral researcher in the Department of Prehistory and first author of the paper.

“Our petrographic studies confirm that the red clays that best match El Argar pottery are found in Pleistocene deposits located on the northwestern slopes of the Almenara mountain range, in the Murcia province, in the area of the current municipality of Lorca”, notes Marta Roigé, geologist at the UAB who also participated in the research. “A whole series of small settlements have been documented in this area, located on the plain above this type of clay, which seem to have specialised in the production of large jars and typical El Argar cups. These settlements are very different from the large hilltop settlements, and were located decades ago precisely because of the amount of pottery found on the surface”, explains Adrià Moreno, researcher at the State Archaeological Service of Saxony-Anhalt in Germany, who has studied the circulation of these pottery pieces to the borders of El Argar.

To carry out the study, researchers surveyed an area of 5,200 square kilometres and analysed the sedimentary and petrographic composition of more than 140 original raw material deposits, comparing them with objects recovered from four main settlements in El Argar: Tira de Lienzo, Ifre, Zapata, and Cabezo Negro, located in the southern part of the province of Murcia. In addition, they developed spatial models of geographic information to assess the relationships between pottery, raw materials, and regions.

The results, researchers point out, reinforce the interpretation of the El Argar system as a complex and regionally interconnected economy with empirical data that shows a structured organisation of ceramic production.

“The technological and compositional homogeneity observed among different settlements suggests planning and control of production processes beyond the strictly domestic sphere. This implies supra-local coordination in the management of resources, technical knowledge, and product distribution, in line with the dynamics of centralisation and specialisation characteristic of the El Argar state model almost 4,000 years ago”, argues Roberto Risch, researcher at the UAB Department of Prehistory and coordinator of the study.

Pottery, key evidence of regional and economic interactions

One of the archaeological characteristics differentiating El Argar, which came to occupy the entire southeast of the Iberian Peninsula (from Alacant to Granada and Jaén), is its pottery. This pottery produced only eight types of vessels in the span of more than 600 years, although some forms range from small cups, such as the typical cup unique to the Iberian Peninsula, to large vessels with a capacity of more than 250 litres.

Although there are not many interdisciplinary studies on El Argar pottery, the prevailing idea until now was that it was produced domestically or, at most, locally—each community and settlement produced its own pottery. The uniformity of production and the virtual absence of decoration over such a long period of time was considered to be an expression of the uniformity of social practices involved in the use of this pottery in El Argar settlements.

Based on material evidence, the study published by UAB researchers contributes to consolidating the role of pottery as a key marker of the regional and economic interactions of the El Argar system. “Although the social and political hierarchy of El Argar is an accepted fact, our results add value by showing how this hierarchy is also manifested in pottery techniques and the organisation of material production. Pottery ceases to be merely a consumer object and becomes a means of tracing mechanisms of control, circulation, and ideological cohesion within the territory,” concludes Carla Garrido.

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https://bit.ly/UAB_AlfareriasArgar_MapaTopographic map of the southeast of the Murcia region showing different locations of the Betic mountain range: (1) Sierra de Carrascoy; (2) Sierra del Algarrobo; (3): Sierra de las Moreras; (4): Sierra de Almenara; (5): Loma de Bas; (6): Sierra de Enmedio; (7): Sierra de las Estancias; (8): Sierra de la Tercia; (9): Sierra Espuña. The legend shows the settlements and clay deposits studied. Credit: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB).  Credit: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)

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Ceramic cup, emblematic of the boom phase of El Argar (©J.A. Soldevilla; ASOME-UAB).  Credit: ASOME-UAB

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Article Source: Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona news release.

Springer Nature—A new high resolution digital dataset and map — named Itiner-e — of roads throughout the Roman Empire around the year 150 CE is presented in research published in Scientific Data. The findings increase the known length of the Empire’s road system by over 100,000 kilometers.

At its height in the second century CE, the Roman Empire included over 55 million people and stretched from modern day Britain to Egypt and Syria. Although a network of roads throughout the Empire facilitated its development and maintenance, it remains incompletely mapped and existing digitizations are low resolution.

Tom Brughmans, Pau de Soto and Adam Pažout and colleagues created Itiner-e using archaeological and historical records, topographic maps, and satellite imagery. The dataset includes 299,171 kilometers of roads — an increase from a previous estimate of 188,555 kilometers — covering almost four million square kilometers. The authors attribute this increase in road coverage to higher coverage of roads in the Iberian Peninsula, Greece and North Africa and to the adapting of previously proposed road routes to fit geographical realities. This includes allowing roads crossing mountains to follow winding paths rather than direct lines. Itiner-e comprises 14,769 road sections, with 103,478 kilometres (34.6%) classified as main roads and 195,693 kilometres (65.4%) as secondary roads. The authors report that the precise locations of only 2.7% of the roads are known with certainty, while 89.8% are less precisely known, and 7.4% are hypothesized.

The authors suggest that Itiner-e represents the most detailed and comprehensive openly accessible digitization of the Empire’s roads and that it also highlights gaps in current knowledge of the road system. They note that Itiner-e cannot show changes in the road system over time and that future research is needed to investigate this throughout the Empire. They propose that Itiner-e could be used in future research investigating the influence of Roman roads on connectivity, administration, migration, and disease transmission in the Empire.

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Article Source: Springer Nature news release.

*Itiner-e: A high-resolution dataset of roads of the Roman Empire, Scientific Data, 6-Nov-2025. 10.1038/s41597-025-06140-z 

Cover Image, Top Left: Roman road. sosinda, Pixabay

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—The ancient Maya center Aguada Fénix was built to represent the society’s understanding of the cosmos, forming the shape of a cosmogram, according to new research. Takeshi Inomata and colleagues suggest that Aguada Fénix’s meaningful site plan motivated people to participate willingly in its construction before the emergence of social hierarchies that enforced compulsory labor. Earlier research attributed the creation of Maya city centers, such as Tikal and Copan, to the existence of a strict class structure in which laborers and lower classes obeyed elites’ orders to construct buildings and infrastructure. However, recent research has uncovered large city centers built earlier than the Late and Terminal Preclassic period (350 BC to 250 BCE), which is when ancient Maya hierarchy began to emerge. For example, no signs of social hierarchy have been found in Aguada Fénix, which was active during the early Middle Preclassic period. From 2020 to 2024, Inomata et al. conducted lidar surveys and tested soil samples in Aguada Fénix. They dated the site to between 1050 BCE and 700 BCE, and discovered that it formed a cosmogram with north-south and east-west axes formed by corridors and canals. The team also uncovered a central cross-shaped cache that held what may be the earliest known directional color symbols found in Mesoamerica. They argue that Aguada Fénix’s special site plan likely motivated communal participation without the need for coercive force. They note, though, that the site probably housed some calendar specialists prized for their knowledge and ability to glean cosmological insights. “[The specialists] probably did not have coercive power, but their esoteric knowledge may have earned them respect, enabling them to persuade large numbers of people to participate in constructions and rituals,” the authors speculate. “These community leaders may have formed an emergent elite, providing a prototype for later Maya rulers.”

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Cruciform cache found in the E Group Plaza. (A) Locations of the excavation units in the E Group on the Main Plateau. (B) Cruciform cache viewed from the east. (C) Axe-shaped clay objects found at the bottom of the large cruciform pit (Cache NR10). (D) Pigments and shells found at the bottom of the small cruciform pit (Cache NR11). Inomata et al., Sci. Adv. 11, eaea2037

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Cache NR10/11 found in the cruciform pit. (A) Blue pigment (azurite) found in the northern part of Cache NR11. (B) Green pigment (malachite) found in the eastern part. (C) Yellow pigment (ochre containing goethite) found in the southern part. (D) Atlantic milk conch (M. costatus) and a valve of the marine spiny oyster (Spondylus sp.) found in the western part. The outer lip of the conch was partially cut clean, and the exterior surface of the spiny oyster was smoothed. The edges of the spiny oyster were also removed to form a square shape, and the valve contained at least two purposefully drilled holes, perhaps for use as a pendant. (E) Atlantic milk conch underside. (F) Marine spiny oyster exterior. (G) Valve of a marine pearl oyster (Pinctada sp.) found in the southern part. The exterior surface of this oyster was also smoothed. (H) Close-up view of one of the axe-shaped clay objects with red pigment found in Cache NR10. Inomata et al., Sci. Adv. 11, eaea2037

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Greenstone objects found in Caches NR6-9. (A) Cache NR6. The large incised object probably depicts a crocodile. (B) Cache NR8. It contained five greenstone axes and an ornament arranged in a flower-petal form but probably had more objects before it was cut by Cache NR9. (C) All objects found in Cache NR7. The cache contained 18 stone objects placed in a cruciform pattern. (D) Front and side view of a thin jade plaque found in the central part of Cache NR9. It may have been used as a plaque hanging from a belt or as a pendant. It probably represents a female in a birthing position. It appears to have broken when the upper right notch was being made. (E) Two sides of the jade objects, each with two transverse perforations, found in Cache NR9. They may have been used together as a headband or necklace. (F) Side view of the first object from the left in (E). (G) Side view of the third object from the left in (E). (H) Pectoral probably representing a bird found in the central part of Cache NR9. Inomata et al., Sci. Adv. 11, eaea2037

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Cache NR7 with jade objects. Takeshi Inomata

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Excavation of Cruciform cache (Cache NR10-11). Takeshi Inomata

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Article Source: AAAS news release.

*Landscape-wide cosmogram built by the early community of Aguada Fénix in southeastern Mesoamerica, Science Advances, 5-Nov-2025. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aea2037

Cover Image, Top Left: Cruciform cache after excavation (Cache NR10-11). Takeshi Inomata

George Washington University, WASHINGTON (Nov. 4, 2025)—Imagine early humans meticulously crafting stone tools for nearly 300,000 years, all while contending with recurring wildfires, droughts, and dramatic environmental shifts. A recent study, published in Nature Communications, brought to light remarkable evidence of enduring technological tradition from Kenya’s Turkana Basin.

PLOS—Tombs scattered across China, built between the 4,000-year old Xia Dynasty and the modern era, reflect the political and social patterns of Chinese history, according to a study published October 29, 2025 in the open-access journal PLOS One by Quanbao Ma from the Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, China, and colleagues.

The research team mapped the location of ancient tombs in China to search for patterns in their distribution across the country and throughout history. They found that both socioeconomic factors and geography may have influenced where these burial sites are located.

For example, many of the surviving tombs are from periods of Chinese history with relative political and economic stability, such as the Qin-Han and Yuan-Ming-Qing dynasties. Times of war and instability, like the Five Dynasties era, are not as well represented in the archaeological record of tombs. The researchers note that when people’s living standards were high, they could likely spend more time focusing on the afterlife.

Population trends might also have influenced where tombs were built. The researchers note, for example, that war was common in northern China from the late Eastern Han dynasty through the Northern and Southern dynasties. This led people to move southward, and tombs from this era are clustered in these southern locations.

Both the Chengdu-Chongqing and Central Plains regions have a higher number of surviving tombs. The researchers note that Chengdu-Chongqing has relatively flat land and fertile soil, and the Central Plains have flat land and plenty of water, which would have helped ancient settlements develop in these areas. Both areas are also relatively humid, which likely helped preserve artifacts inside the tombs.

Burial sites represent an indispensable source of cultural heritage knowledge, the research team notes — and they hope that this study will help provide some of the scientific foundations needed to preserve these tombs in the future.

The authors add: “This study conducted a systematic digital survey and analysis of the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors of ancient tombs in China, revealing their evolution patterns and influencing factors, thus laying an important theoretical foundation for building a scientific and precise protection system.”

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The centroid shift trajectory of CATs across different historical periods. Ma et al., 2025, PLOS One, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

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Article Source: PLOS One news release

*Ma Q, Li Y, Yang Z, Zhao X, Li C, Shi Z, et al. (2025) The spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors of ancient tombs in China: A study on the conservation of ancient tombs in China. PLoS One 20(10): e0333485. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0333485