Archives: Articles

University of Colorado at Boulder—Thousands of years ago, ancient humans undertook a treacherous journey, crossing hundreds of miles of ice over the Bering Strait to the unknown world of the Americas.

Now, a new study led by the University of Colorado Boulder suggests that these nomads carried something surprising with them—a chunk of DNA inherited from a now-extinct species of hominin, which may have helped humans adapt to the challenges of their new home.

The researchers will publish their results Aug. 21 in the journal Science.

“In terms of evolution, this is an incredible leap,” said Fernando Villanea, one of two lead authors of the study and an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at CU Boulder. “It shows an amount of adaptation and resilience within a population that is simply amazing.”

The research takes a new look at a species known as Denisovans. These ancient relatives of humans lived from what is today Russia south to Oceania and west to the Tibetan Plateau. The Denisovans likely went extinct tens of thousands of years ago. Their existence, however, remains poorly understood: Scientists identified the first known Denisovan just 15 years ago from the DNA in a fragment of bone found in a cave in Siberia. Like Neanderthals, Denisovans may have had prominent brows and no chins.

“We know more about their genomes and how their body chemistry behaves than we do about what they looked like,” Villanea said.

A growing body of research has shown that Denisovans interbred with both Neanderthals and humans, profoundly shaping the biology of people living today.

To explore those connections, Villanea and his colleagues including co-lead author David Peede from Brown University, examined the genomes of humans from across the globe. In particular, the team set its sights on a gene called MUC19, which plays an important role in the immune system.

The group discovered that humans with Indigenous American ancestry are more likely than other populations to carry a variant of this gene that came from Denisovans. In other words, this ancient genetic heritage may have helped humans survive in the completely new ecosystems of North and South America.

A little-known gene

Villanea added that MUC19’s function in the human body is about as mysterious as Denisovans themselves. It’s one of 22 genes in mammals that produce mucins. These proteins make mucus, which, among other functions, can protect tissues from pathogens.

“It seems like MUC19 has a lot of functional consequences for health, but we’re only starting to understand these genes,” he said. 

Previous research has shown that Denisovans carried their own variant of the MUC19 gene, with a unique series of mutations, which they passed onto some humans. That kind of admixture was common in the ancient world: Most humans alive today carry some Neanderthal DNA, whereas Denisovan DNA makes up as much as 5% of the genomes of people from Papua New Guinea. 

In the current study, Villanea and colleagues wanted to learn more about how these genetic time capsules shape our evolution.

The group pored through already published data on the genomes of modern humans from Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico and Colombia where Indigenous American ancestry and DNA is common. 

They discovered that one in three modern people of Mexican ancestry carry a copy of the Denisovan variant of MUC19—and particularly in portions of their genome that come from Indigenous American heritage. That’s in contrast to people of Central European ancestry, only 1% of whom carry this variant.

The researchers discovered something even more surprising: In humans, the Denisovan gene variant seems to be surrounded by DNA from Neanderthals. 

“This DNA is like an Oreo, with a Denisovan center and Neanderthal cookies,” Villanea said.

A new world

Here’s what Villanea and his colleagues suspect happened: Before humans crossed the Bering Strait, Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals, passing the Denisovan MUC19 to their offspring. Then, in a game of genetic telephone, Neanderthals bred with humans, sharing some Denisovan DNA. It’s the first time scientists have identified DNA jumping from Denisovans to Neanderthals and then humans. 

Later, humans migrated to the Americas where natural selection favored the spread of this borrowed MUC19.

Why the Denisovan variant became so common in North and South America but not in other parts of the world isn’t yet clear. Villanea noted that the first people who lived in the Americas likely encountered conditions unlike anything else in human history, including new kinds of food and diseases. Denisovan DNA may have given them additional tools to contend with challenges like these.

“All of a sudden, people had to find new ways to hunt, new ways to farm, and they developed really cool technology in response to those challenges,” he said. “But, over 20,000 years, their bodies were also adapting at a biological level.”

To build that picture, the anthropologist is planning to study how different MUC19 gene variants affect the health of humans living today. For now, Villanea said the study is a testament to the power of human evolution. 

“What Indigenous American populations did was really incredible,” Villanea said. “They went from a common ancestor living around the Bering Strait to adapting biologically and culturally to this new continent that has every single type of biome in the world.”

Other co-authors of the new study include researchers at Brown University; the University of Washington School of Medicine; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; University of Copenhagen; Clemson University; University of Padova; University of Turin; University of California, Berkeley; Université Paris- Saclay; and Trinity College Dublin.

_____________________________

Replica of a Denisovan molar, originally found in Denisova Cave in 2000, at the Museum of Natural Sciences in Brussels, Belgium. Thilo Parg, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

_____________________________

Article Source: University of Colorado Boulder news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Neolithic people from two sites in northeastern France practiced overkill and mutilation of foreign invaders, new research suggests. The work, which provides some of the earliest evidence for grisly war-related victory celebrations, involved the analysis of brutalized skeletal remains and severed limbs found in prehistoric pits dating back to between 4300 and 4150 BCE. The presence of these burial pits at the Achenheim and Bergheim sites implies that these Neolithic communities were at war. Other archaeological evidence across the Upper Rhine Valley shows that military invasions caused rapid cultural upheaval at this time. Yet, whether the people buried here were prisoners of war – and whether they were locals or foreigners – remained unknown until now. To answer this, Teresa Fernández-Crespo and colleagues analyzed 82 human skeletal remains from the Achenheim and Bergheim sites. Some of these remains bore violent injuries, including unhealed skull fractures and severed upper limbs, indicating these people were victims of war violence. Other remains had no signs of unhealed trauma or dismemberment, suggesting these people were given a normal burial. Fernández-Crespo et al. also performed isotopic analyses on the remains, and discovered significant differences in the isotopic fingerprints of victims versus non-victims. Doing so enabled the researchers to deduce that the victims came from elsewhere, while non-victims lived locally. This suggests that the victims belonged to invading groups and were killed by locals defending their territory, the authors say. “It is probable that the identities of these victims can be attributed to socially remote, nonlocal enemies that became trophies or captives during battles or raids and that may have been considered by their captors as not properly ‘human’ and hence warranting such treatment,” Fernández-Crespo et al. write.

________________________

Overhead views of late Middle Neolithic violence-related
human mass deposits of the Alsace region, France, analyzed in this study. (A) Pit 157 from
Bergheim Saulager (Photo credit: Fanny Chenal, INRAP).

_____________________________

Overhead views of late Middle Neolithic violence-related human mass deposits of the Alsace region, France, analyzed in this study. (B) pit 124 from Achenheim Strasse 2, RD 45 (Photo credit: Philippe Lefranc, INRAP).

_____________________________

Article Source: AAAS news release

*Multi-isotope biographies and identities of victims of martial victory celebrations in Neolithic Europe, Science Advances, 20-Aug-2025. 10.1126/sciadv.adv3162 

Tel Aviv University—An international study led by researchers from Tel Aviv University and the French National Centre for Scientific Research provides the first scientific evidence that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens had biological and social relations, and even interbred for the first time, in the Land of Israel. The research team found a combination of Neanderthal and Homo sapiens traits in the skeleton of a five-year-old child discovered about 90 years ago in the Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. The fossil, estimated to be about 140,000 years old, is the earliest human fossil in the world to display morphological features of both of these human groups, which until recently were considered two separate species. The study was led by Prof. Israel Hershkovitz of the Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences at Tel Aviv University and Anne Dambricourt-Malassé of the French National Centre for Scientific Research. The findings of this historic discovery were published in the journal l’Anthropologie.

“Genetic studies over the past decade have shown that these two groups exchanged genes,” explains Prof. Hershkovitz. “Even today, 40,000 years after the last Neanderthals disappeared, part of our genome—2 to 6 percent—is of Neanderthal origin. But these gene exchanges took place much later, between 60,000 to 40,000 years ago. Here, we are dealing with a human fossil that is 140,000 years old. In our study, we show that the child’s skull, which in its overall shape resembles that of Homo sapiens—especially in the curvature of the skull vault—has an intracranial blood supply system, a lower jaw, and an inner ear structure typical of Neanderthals.”

For years, Neanderthals were thought to be a group that evolved in Europe, migrating to the Land of Israel only about 70,000 years ago, following the advance of European glaciers. In a groundbreaking 2021 study published in the prestigious journal Science, Prof. Hershkovitz and his colleagues showed that early Neanderthals lived in the Land of Israel as early as 400,000 years ago. This human type, which Prof. Hershkovitz called “Nesher Ramla Homo” (after the archaeological site near the Nesher Ramla factory where it was found), encountered Homo sapiens groups that began leaving Africa about 200,000 years ago—and, according to the current study’s findings, interbred with them. The child from the Skhul Cave is the earliest fossil evidence in the world of the social and biological ties forged between these two populations over thousands of years. The local Neanderthals eventually disappeared when they were absorbed into the Homo sapiens population, much like the later European Neanderthals.

The researchers reached these conclusions after conducting a series of advanced tests on the fossil. First, they scanned the skull and jaw using micro-CT technology at the Shmunis Family Anthropology Institute at Tel Aviv University, creating an accurate three-dimensional model from the scans. This enabled them to perform a complex morphological analysis of the anatomical structures (including non-visible structures such as the inner ear) and compare them to various hominid populations. To study the structure of the blood vessels surrounding the brain, they also created an accurate 3D reconstruction of the inside of the skull.

“The fossil we studied is the earliest known physical evidence of mating between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens,” says Prof. Hershkovitz. “In 1998, a skeleton of a child was discovered in Portugal that showed traits of both of these human groups. But that skeleton, nicknamed the ‘Lapedo Valley Child,’ dates back to 28,000 years ago—more than 100,000 years after the Skhul child. Traditionally, anthropologists have attributed the fossils discovered in the Skhul Cave, along with fossils from the Qafzeh Cave near Nazareth, to an early group of Homo sapiens. The current study reveals that at least some of the fossils from the Skhul Cave are the result of continuous genetic infiltration from the local—and older—Neanderthal population into the Homo sapiens population.”

______________________________

The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens.  Tel Aviv University

______________________________

The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals.  Tel Aviv University

______________________________

The Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. Tel Aviv University

______________________________

Article Source: Tel Aviv University news release.

*https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003552125000366?via%3Dihub

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Ancient Oldowan toolmakers transported raw stone materials for toolmaking roughly 600,000 years earlier than thought, a new study* suggests. The geochemical analyses of 401 artifacts from a site in Kenya indicates these early hominins sourced higher-quality stones from up to 13 kilometers away – meaning that they could strategize about land-use and remember locations of high-quality resources. Primitive stone toolmaking took hold roughly 3.3 million years ago. 700,000 years later, the practice became more refined, marking the advent of what archaeologists call the Oldowan industry. Scientists theorized that early Oldowan toolmakers relied on local resources until 2 million years ago. Now though, Emma Finestone and colleagues show that Oldowan toolmakers were transporting raw stone material from faraway at the onset of the Oldowan industry. First, the researchers examined the geochemical composition of stone artifacts from the Nyayanga site in Kenya, including Bukoban quartzite and Nyanzian rhyolite. Then, they mapped the sources of these artifacts’ raw materials and found that the stones must have come from roughly 13 kilometers away. The findings strongly suggest that Oldowan toolmakers could use mental maps, plan in advance, and judge stone quality 600,000 years earlier than believed. Notably, the Nyayanga site holds fossils of Paranthropus, an extinct genus of hominid. “Although the taxonomic identity of Nyayanga toolmakers remains unknown, the association of this [artifact] assemblage with fossils attributed to the genus Paranthropus calls into question whether the transport of core and flake technology was exclusive to genus Homo,” Finestone et al. write.

____________________________

A map of the Nyayanga archaeological locality in western Kenya and primary outcrops of Nyanzian and Bukoban rocks. A variety of rocks from the Nyanzian and Bukoban rock supergroups were used in tool manufacture. E.M Finestone, J.S. Oliver, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

____________________________

Nyayanga amphitheater in July 2025 showing the location of excavation 3 (lower on slope) and excavation 5 (higher on slope). Tan and reddish-brown sediments are late Pliocene deposits with fossils and Oldowan tools. T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

____________________________

Oldowan tools made from a variety of raw materials that were sourced from over 10 km away from the Nyayanga locality. E.M Finestone, J.S. Oliver, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

____________________________

Pounding tool exc3-103 and flake exc3-104 manufactured from nonlocal raw materials, found associated with a butchered hippopotamid skeleton in excavation 3 in July 2016.  T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

____________________________

Oldowan flake exc3-1548 in direct spatial association with hippopotamid scapula exc3-1549, found in July 2017 as part of excavation 3 hippopotamid butchery assemblage. T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

____________________________

Article Source: AAAS news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Mayan cultural centers were not uniformly susceptible to extreme drought events during the Terminal Classic Period, new research* finds. By comparing a novel paleo-climate record derived from a stalagmite with archaeological records at Yucatán sites including Chichén Itzá and Uxmal, the study challenges a theory that simplistically connects drought cycles to the abandonment of settlements. Around 800 to 1000 CE, sociopolitical unrest wracked the Maya Lowlands as people abandoned cultural centers. Paleoclimate records have suggested that this timeframe, called the Terminal Classic Period, coincided with recurring droughts that lasted from 1 to 10 years. Now, Daniel James and colleagues have focused on regional differences to investigate the connection between droughts and Mayan activity in the northwest Yucatán Peninsula in modern-day Mexico. They conducted isotopic analyses on a stalagmite (Tzab06-1) collected from a cave near Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and other Classic Maya sites. By studying laminations within the stalagmite, which grew from roughly 871 to 1021 CE, they reconstructed sub-annual wet- and dry-season rainfall records. The northwest Yucatán experienced 1- to 13-year-long extreme drought events episodically within the timeframe, including 8 extreme wet-season droughts that each lasted more than 3 years. Comparing drought records with existing archaeological evidence showed that activity at Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and other regional sites decreased at different times and not always in tandem with drought cycles. The authors attribute this variability to differences in water management infrastructure, and to variations in connectedness beyond the region through trade. “Chichén Itzá controlled a vast system of tribute collection,” the authors write. “Perhaps, this was manageable with available water conservation techniques to mitigate crop failures, enabling populations at Chichén Itzá to recover, whereas frequent alternation of wet and dry periods reduced seasonal predictability and prevented re-establishment of less centralized and resilient polities elsewhere.”

____________________________

Dome. Interior of cave where research performed.  Mark Brenner, 2023

____________________________

Labna, a Mesoamerican archaeological site and ceremonial center of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the Puuc Hills region of the Yucatán Peninsula.  Mark Brenner, 2022

____________________________

Logging information for study.  Sebastian Breitenbach, 2022

____________________________

SYP. Research team within a cave. Sebastian Breitenbach, 2022

____________________________

Article Source: AAAS news release.

New York City is often seen as a modern metropolis of steel and glass, towering above the hustle of millions of people. But beneath its concrete streets and behind the walls of its brownstones lies another story—one that begins centuries before the Empire State Building touched the sky. This hidden history is being unearthed, piece by piece, through the science of archaeology, and it has a profound impact on how renovation and construction projects are carried out in the city today.

Welcome to the fascinating intersection of archaeology and urban renovation—a complex dance between preservation and progress, between the shovel and the scaffold.

The Hidden Layers of New York City

New York City is built on layers—not just layers of infrastructure or bureaucracy, but actual historical strata. Every time a foundation is dug or a wall is torn down, there’s a chance of uncovering relics from centuries past. From colonial settlements to Native American encampments, from Dutch traders to early African American communities, the city’s soil holds secrets that must be respected and protected.

This deeply layered history means that developers and renovators are not just dealing with bricks and mortar—they’re dealing with heritage.

Archaeology’s Role in Urban Development

In many cities around the world, archaeology is closely tied to urban planning and development. NYC is no different. The Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), established in 1965, oversees archaeological matters in the city, particularly in designated Historic Districts or areas suspected of holding archaeological significance.

When a construction or renovation project is proposed, especially in older parts of the city like Lower Manhattan, the Financial District, Brooklyn Heights, or Harlem, developers may be required to conduct an archaeological review. This review ensures that potential historical resources are not destroyed without documentation or consideration.

Regulatory Framework: Renovation Rules Grounded in Archaeology

The rules that govern renovation in NYC are heavily influenced by archaeological concerns, especially in sensitive areas. Here’s how the process typically works:

1. Phase IA Archaeological Assessment

Before any ground is broken, an environmental or historical consultant may conduct a Phase IA study. This involves researching the historical significance of the site, reviewing old maps, deeds, and documents to determine whether archaeological artifacts might be present.

2. Phase IB Testing

If Phase IA suggests the potential for buried resources, a Phase IB investigation is initiated. This stage involves actual digging—test pits, core samples, or soil boring—to physically check for artifacts.

3. Phase II Site Evaluation

If significant materials are found, a Phase II study may be required. This involves broader excavation and documentation of findings. Depending on the nature of the artifacts, this could delay the project for weeks or even months.

4. Phase III Data Recovery

In rare cases where the findings are exceptionally significant, full-scale excavation (Phase III) is conducted before construction can resume. This is the most time-consuming and expensive phase.

Not Just a Legal Hurdle—A Moral and Cultural Responsibility

While some developers see archaeological reviews as an obstacle, many recognize the importance of preserving the city’s heritage. Every artifact tells a story—of the city’s first immigrants, of industries that no longer exist, of communities that were displaced or forgotten.

There have been extraordinary discoveries during renovation and construction, such as:

• The African Burial Ground: Discovered in the 1990s during construction for a federal office building, this site in Lower Manhattan revealed over 400 skeletal remains of African slaves buried in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, it is a National Monument and a sobering reminder of the city’s past.
• The Stadt Huys Block: Excavations in Lower Manhattan unearthed remnants of the city’s first city hall, dating back to the 17th century Dutch colonial period. Renovation projects in the area are now tightly controlled to avoid disturbing what’s left.
• Colonial-Era Taverns and Homes: During utility or renovation work in neighborhoods like the South Street Seaport or Wall Street, teams have found the foundations of colonial homes, taverns, and even pottery and tools.

Each of these discoveries has influenced how future renovations are planned and executed.

How Renovators Navigate Archaeological Constraints

Renovating or restoring a building in New York, particularly one that’s landmarked or historically located, often requires navigating a complex web of permits and approvals.

Some key steps that responsible renovation contractors take include:

Pre-Construction Research

Before bidding on a project, experienced contractors often do their own historical research to assess potential risks. Knowing the past of a location can help in cost estimation and project timelines.

Working with Preservationists and Archaeologists

Contractors frequently collaborate with professionals trained in archaeology and historic preservation. This ensures that any findings are handled properly and in compliance with city regulations.

Adapting Design Plans

Sometimes the design or layout of a renovation must be altered to accommodate archaeological preservation. For example, an underground parking garage might be relocated to avoid disturbing historical foundations.

Training and Awareness

Construction crews are trained to recognize potential artifacts or soil changes that could indicate buried structures or objects. If anything is found, work is paused, and experts are brought in.

Economic and Cultural Impact of Archaeology on Renovation

It’s easy to assume that all these rules just add cost and delay. But there are long-term benefits—economic, cultural, and even reputational.

Economic Value

Buildings or sites with documented historical significance often appreciate in value. They can attract tourism, commercial interest, or funding from preservation societies and grants.

Cultural Identity

Archaeology helps preserve the stories of marginalized communities that might otherwise be forgotten. Renovating with respect to these histories helps neighborhoods retain their cultural identity.

Reputation

Renovation firms known for respecting historical processes often enjoy better reputations and greater trust among government agencies and historical societies.

Case Study: Renovation at the South Street Seaport

A real-world example of archaeology influencing renovation is at the South Street Seaport Historic District. Developers planning upgrades to the 19th-century warehouse buildings had to conduct archaeological testing due to the area’s significance as a port since the 1600s.

Archaeologists found remnants of piers, goods storage, and even whalebone fragments used in early commerce. The developers adjusted their plans to preserve the foundations and incorporated archaeological displays into the final design, blending history with modernization.

The Future of Renovation in NYC: A Partnership with the Past

As the city continues to evolve, the role of archaeology in renovation is only growing. Technology like ground-penetrating radar, 3D scanning, and AI-enhanced mapping tools are making it easier to identify and protect hidden historical elements.

Meanwhile, a greater awareness of social justice and cultural preservation is leading to more inclusive archaeological practices. Projects are increasingly evaluated not just for colonial or commercial artifacts but for traces of immigrant, African-American, Indigenous, and working-class lives.

This shift is ensuring that the narrative of NYC’s past is as diverse and rich as its present.

Conclusion: Building on History, Not Over It

New York City’s skyline is constantly evolving, but its foundations are deep—rooted in the lives of countless people who came before us. By embracing archaeology as a partner rather than a problem, renovation projects can achieve something far more meaningful than just new floors or façades—they can become bridges between past and present.

For property owners and developers, this means choosing contractors who understand not just how to build, but how to preserve. Whether you’re restoring a Brooklyn brownstone or modernizing a downtown loft, working with experts who respect the past ensures a future built on integrity.

If you’re seeking professionals who blend expert craftsmanship with historical sensitivity, consider working with the best exterior renovation contractors in NYC. They’ll help you build not just walls, but legacy.

___________________________

Cover Image, Top Left: Qasinka, CC0 1.0 Universal, Wikimedia Commons

Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—An international team of researchers from Germany, Georgia, Armenia, and Norway has analyzed ancient DNA from 230 individuals across 50 archaeological sites from Georgia and Armenia. Within the framework of the Max Planck-Harvard Research Center for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean, co-directed by Johannes Krause, Director at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, and Philipp Stockhammer, Professor at Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, this study reconstructs the genetic interactions of populations in the Southern Caucasus over time and down to the level of individual mobility.

Mostly constant ancestry with traces of Bronze Age migrations

Spanning from the Early Bronze Age (circa 3500 BCE) to after the Migration Period (circa 500 CE), the research shows that people in the Southern Caucasus retained a mostly constant ancestry profile. “The persistence of a deeply rooted local gene pool through several shifts in material culture is exceptional”, says population geneticist Harald Ringbauer, whose research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology led this study, “This stands out compared to other regions across Western Eurasia, where many changes were linked to substantial movement of people.”

While there was overall genetic continuity, the research also found evidence of migration from neighboring regions. During the later phases of the Bronze Age, in particular, a portion of the area’s genetic makeup traces back to people from Anatolia and the Eurasian steppe pastoralists—reflecting cultural exchange, technological innovation, burial practices, and the expansion of economic systems, such as mobile pastoralism. Following this period, the population size in the area increased, and genetic signatures of mixing were often more transient or confined to singular mobile individuals.

Cranial deformation: introduced by migration, then turned into a local tradition

One of the study’s most striking findings concerns early Medieval individuals from the Iberian Kingdom, located in present-day eastern Georgia, who had intentionally deformed skulls. This cultural practice was long thought to be tied to Central Eurasian Steppe populations. “We identified numerous individuals with deformed skulls who were genetically Central Asian, and we even found direct genealogical links to the Avars and Huns ” says lead author and geneticist Eirini Skourtanioti from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Ludwig Maximilians University Munich. “However, our analyses revealed that most of these individuals were locals, not migrants. This is a compelling example of the cultural adoption of a practice that was likely disseminated in the area by nomadic groups.”

Liana Bitadze, head of the Anthropological Research Laboratory at Tbilisi State University in Georgia and a co-author of the study, corroborates the significance of this finding: “Previously, we addressed this question through comparative morphometric analyses. Now, ancient DNA analysis has created a completely new line of evidence, helping us to reach more definitive answers.”

A melting pot of diverse ancestries

The study also highlights how urban centers and early Christian sites in eastern Georgia became melting pots of people beginning in Late Antiquity. This further emphasizes the long-standing role of the Caucasus as a dynamic cultural and genetic frontier.

“Historical sources mention how the Caucasus Mountains served both as a barrier and a corridor for migration during Late Antiquity. Our study shows that increased individual mobility was a key feature of the emerging urban centers in the region”, says Xiaowen Jia, co-lead author and PhD researcher at Ludwig Maximilians University Munich.

This research sets a new standard for understanding the population histories of regions that have long been overlooked by archaeogenetics.

_________________________

Mtskheta, the ancient capital of the Iberian Kingdom, and the confluence of the Kura and Aragvi rivers, about 20 kilometers north of Tbilisi, Georgia. This study analyzed the DNA of individuals buried in the Samtavro cemetery, a small white structure on the right side of the photo. Several of these individuals had artificially deformed skulls. Mtskheta was the economic and political capital of the Kingdom of Iberia for nearly a millennium, until the fifth century CE, and was also a center of early Christianization.  © Harald Ringbauer

_________________________

Article Source: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology news release.

*The genetic history of the Southern Caucasus from the Bronze age to the Early Middle Ages: 5,000 years of genetic continuity despite high mobility, Cell, 7-Aug-2025.  10.1016/j.cell.2025.07.013 

Griffith University—Recent findings, made by Griffith University researchers, show that early hominins made a major deep-sea crossing to reach the Indonesian island of Sulawesi much earlier than previously established, based on the discovery of stone tools dating to at least 1.04 million years ago at the Early Pleistocene (or ‘Ice Age’) site of Calio.

Budianto Hakim from the National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia (BRIN) and Professor Adam Brumm from the Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution at Griffith University led the research published today in Nature.

A field team led by Hakim excavated a total of seven stone artefacts from the sedimentary layers of a sandstone outcrop in a modern corn field at the southern Sulawesi location.

In the Early Pleistocene, this would have been the site of hominin tool-making and other activities such as hunting, in the vicinity of a river channel.

The Calio artifacts consist of small, sharp-edged fragments of stones (flakes) that the early human tool-makers struck from larger pebbles that had most likely been obtained from nearby riverbeds.

The Griffith-led team used palaeomagnetic dating of the sandstone itself and direct-dating of an excavated pig fossil, to confirm an age of at least 1.04 million years for the artifacts.

Previously, Professor Brumm’s team had revealed evidence for hominin occupation in this archipelago, known as Wallacea, from at least 1.02 million years ago, based on the presence of stone tools at Wolo Sege on the island of Flores, and by around 194 thousand years ago at Talepu on Sulawesi.

The island of Luzon in the Philippines, to the north of Wallacea, had also yielded evidence of hominins from around 700,000 years ago.

“This discovery adds to our understanding of the movement of extinct humans across the Wallace Line, a transitional zone beyond which unique and often quite peculiar animal species evolved in isolation,” Professor Brumm said.

“It’s a significant piece of the puzzle, but the Calio site has yet to yield any hominin fossils; so while we now know there were tool-makers on Sulawesi a million years ago, their identity remains a mystery.”

The original discovery of Homo floresiensis (the ‘hobbit’) and subsequent 700,000-year-old fossils of a similar small-bodied hominin on Flores, also led by Professor Brumm’s team, suggested that it could have been Homo erectus that breached the formidable marine barrier between mainland Southeast Asia to inhabit this small Wallacean island, and, over hundreds of thousands of years, underwent island dwarfism.

Professor Brumm said his team’s recent find on Sulawesi has led him to wonder what might have happened to Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times the size of Flores?

“Sulawesi is a wild card – it’s like a mini-continent in itself,” he said.

“If hominins were cut off on this huge and ecologically rich island for a million years, would they have undergone the same evolutionary changes as the Flores hobbits? Or would something totally different have happened?”

The study ‘Hominins on Sulawesi during the Early Pleistocene’ has been published in Nature.

_____________________________

Stone tools were excavated from Calio, Sulawesi, and dated to over 1.04 million years ago. The scale bars are 10 mm.  M.W. Moore/University of New England

_____________________________

Article Source: Griffith University news release.

Inspired by a TV documentary on Stonehenge’s bluestones, Sullivan applied Lean Manufacturing techniques, including root-cause analysis tools like the 5 Whys, to develop the Conveyor System. As detailed in his original Megalithic Portal post, the system uses smaller bluestones arranged in a line or grid as a raised base pathway (6-10 stones, ~2-3 meters long) to elevate and distribute weight, preventing sinking in soft ground. Wooden rollers (2-3 dowels, 10-20 cm diameter) are placed under the load stone (2-5 tons), allowing low-friction rolling. Leapfrogging relocates rear bases and rollers forward after each 1-2 meter advance, creating a continuous, reusable conveyor for distances like Stonehenge’s 240 km bluestone route.

The e-book explains the system’s mechanics, including how friction naturally “dresses” stones through abrasion, and provides step-by-step applications:

• For Stonehenge: Transports bluestones with 5-10 minute cycles, covering 1-2 km/day, outperforming rollers by eliminating resets and saving 50% labor.
• For Egyptian Pyramids: Adapts to ramps and Nile hauls, meeting 1-2 minute takt time for 315 blocks/day with parallels, while rollers fail due to bottlenecks and congestion.

Sullivan’s 3P project prototypes—concrete blocks on grass—confirmed feasibility, with Grok 4 used in 2025 for calculations validating timelines and efficiencies.

“This system challenges us to rethink ancient capabilities,” says Sullivan. “From Stonehenge’s bluestones to Giza’s blocks, it offers a practical, waste-free solution aligned with Neolithic resources.”

___________________________

The e-book is available for download.

A youtube video demonstrating the method is available here.

More information can also be obtained at the Megalithic Portal.

___________________________

Cover Image, Top Left: Stonehenge. Walkerssk, Pixabay

Frontiers—In south-east Asia, betel nut chewing has been practiced since antiquity. The plants contain compounds that enhance the consumer’s alertness, energy, euphoria, and relaxation. Although the practice is becoming less common in modern times, it has been deeply embedded in social and cultural traditions for thousands of years. Chewing betel nuts typically results in dark, reddish-brown to black stained teeth.

Yet, teeth without staining may not mean that people didn’t chew betel nuts. Now, using a new method, an international team of researchers examined ancient dental plaque from Bronze Age Thailand and found evidence of betel nut chewing.

“We identified plant derivatives in dental calculus from a 4,000-year-old burial at Nong Ratchawat, Thailand,” said first author of the Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology study Dr Piyawit Moonkham, an anthropological archaeologist at Chiang Mai University in Thailand. “This is the earliest direct biomolecular evidence of betel nut use in south-east Asia.”

“We demonstrate that dental calculus can preserve chemical signatures of psychoactive plant use for millennia, even when conventional archaeological evidence is completely absent,” added Dr Shannon Tushingham, the senior author, who is the associate curator of anthropology at the California Academy of Sciences. “In essence, we’ve developed a way to make the invisible visible—revealing behaviors and practices that have been lost to time for 4,000 years.”

Hidden in plaque

At Nong Ratchawat, an archaeological site in central Thailand that dates back to the Bronze Age, 156 human burials have been unearthed since 2003. For the present study, the team collected 36 dental calculus samples from six individuals.

Back in the lab, they removed tiny amounts of plaque from the samples and the chemical residues found therein underwent analysis. The team also used betel liquid samples they produced themselves to ensure psychoactive compounds could be reliably detected through their analysis and to understand the complex biochemical interactions between ingredients. “We used dried betel nut, pink limestone paste, Piper betel leaves, and sometimes Senegalia catechu bark and tobacco. We ground the ingredients with human saliva to replicate authentic chewing conditions,” Moonkham said. “Sourcing materials and experimentally ‘chewing’ betel nuts to create authentic quid samples was both a fun and interesting process.”

The results showed that three of the archaeological samples – all stemming from a molar of the same individual, Burial 11 – contained traces of arecoline and arecaidine. These organic compounds, found in betel nuts but also plants like coffee, tea, and tobacco, have pronounced physiological effects on humans. This suggests that betel nuts were chewed as early as 4,000 years ago in Thailand.

‘Archaeologically invisible’ proof

“The presence of betel nut compounds in dental calculus does suggest repeated consumption, as these residues become incorporated into mineralized plaque deposits over time through regular exposure,” explained Tushingham. Accordingly, the absence of tooth-staining raises questions. It could be the result of different consumption methods, the team pointed out. It could also be due to post-consumption teeth cleaning practices, or post-mortem processes affecting stain preservation over 4,000 years.

While traces of betel nut chewing were found in samples from only one individual, there is currently no proof that Burial 11 received special treatment or was of elevated social status or unique ritual significance compared to the other burials at Nong Ratchawat. The presence of stone beads as grave goods, however, could provide hints as to the individual’s identity or lived experience. Studying more individuals at Nong Ratchawat and other local sites to learn when and to whom such grave goods were given could provide valuable evidence, the team said.

The methods the researchers applied can be used to examine the remaining burials at Nong Ratchawat and at other sites, they said. “Dental calculus analysis can reveal behaviors that leave no traditional archaeological traces, potentially revolutionizing our understanding of ancient lifeways and human-plant relationships,” Tushingham said. “It could open new windows into the deep history of human cultural practices.”

“Understanding the cultural context of traditional plant use is a larger theme we want to amplify—psychoactive, medicinal, and ceremonial plants are often dismissed as drugs, but they represent millennia of cultural knowledge, spiritual practice, and community identity,” Moonkham concluded. “Archaeological evidence can inform contemporary discussions by honoring the deep cultural heritage behind these practices.”

____________________________

Archaeological burials with associated artifacts at Nong Ratchawat. Credit: Piyawit Moonkham.

____________________________

Modern betel quid ingredients: Piper betle leaf, areca nut (Areca catechu L.), limestone paste, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), and Senegalia catechu bark filaments. Credit: Piyawit Moonkham

____________________________

Red liquid produced after chewing betel quid. Credit: Piyawit Moonkham.  Credit Piyawit Moonkham

____________________________

University of St. Andrews—New research from the University of St Andrews and Dartmouth College examines the crucial, but until now, overlooked, role of ‘scrumped’ fruit in the lives of great apes and the origins of human feasting. 

Published today (Thursday 31 July) in BioScience, this pioneering study is the first to tackle the mystery of why humans are so astoundingly good at metabolising alcohol. 

The findings show that feeding on fermented fruits gathered from the forest floor is an important behavior in the lives of African apes, and one that explains why they, and we, evolved the ability to digest alcohol efficiently. 

Researchers from the University of St Andrews and four other international institutions worked with a large observational data set to quantify, for the first time, how regularly this behavior happens across great apes.  

Co-author Nathaniel Dominy, the Charles Hansen Professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth College, said: “One problem for the researchers was that there was no word to describe ‘feeding on fruits gathered from the forest floor.’ Nobody wants more jargon, but without a word to talk about something, a behavior is easily overlooked” 

They repurposed the word ‘scrumping’, the act of gathering, or sometimes stealing, windfallen apples and other fruit. It is an English derivation of the middle low German word schrimpen, a mediaeval noun for describing overripe or fermented fruit. 

Whilst searching for the right term they discovered that there is a long-standing representation in gothic art of primates picking fruit from the ground. By repurposing the term scrumping, they suggest their work is a case of “life imitating art imitating life.” 

A range of work points towards the fact that ripe fruit contain small-but scrumptious-levels of ethanol, there have been recent findings hinting at the importance of chimpanzees’ feeding socially on fruits. 

Building on those findings, this paper has revealed that, counter to widespread beliefs that primates do not ‘scrump,’ African apes, but not orangutans, ‘scrump’ on a regular basis. This behavioural difference is crucial, as the same pattern is reflected in an important genetic mutation that allows African apes to metabolise alcohol 40x more efficiently than orangutans and other primates, and could be an important link to the evolution of humans’ long-standing affair with alcohol. 

Co-lead author Professor Catherine Hobaiter from the University of St Andrews School of Psychology and Neuroscience, said: “A fundamental feature of our relationship with alcohol, is our tendency to drink together, whether a pint with friends or a large social feast. The next step is to investigate how shared feeding on fermented fruits might also influence social relationships in other apes.” 

Professor Hobaiter added, “One upshot is that sharing a cold pint of scrumpy this summer echoes a behaviour our ape ancestors might have already been partaking in 10 million years ago.” 

_____________________________

Article Source: University of St. Andrews news release.

Cell Press—Ancient Roman concrete, which was used to build aqueducts, bridges, and buildings across the empire, has endured for over two thousand years. In a study publishing July 25 in the Cell Press journal iScience, researchers investigated whether switching back to Roman concrete could improve the sustainability of modern-day concrete production. They found that reproducing the ancient recipe would require comparable energy and water and emit similar amounts of CO2. However, the authors suggest that the heightened durability of Roman concrete might make it a more sustainable option because it could reduce the need for replacement and maintenance.  

“Studying Roman concrete can teach us how to use materials in a way that can maximize the longevity of our structures, because sustainability goes hand-by-hand with durability,” says author and engineer Daniela Martinez of Universidad del Norte in Colombia.  

Making more sustainable concrete remains an important challenge in the race to decarbonize the construction industry. Modern concrete production contributes to air pollution and is responsible for approximately 8% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions and 3% of the total global energy demand. Since previous studies have suggested that Roman concrete might be more sustainable than modern concrete, the researchers decided to put this hypothesis to the test. 

“We were interested in how we can draw lessons from their methods to inform some of the climate-mitigation challenges that we currently face in our built environment,” says Martinez. 

The key raw ingredient in both Ancient Roman and modern concrete is limestone. When heated to extremely high temperatures, limestone decomposes to produce CO2 and calcium oxide, which can be combined with other key minerals and water to form a paste that binds the concrete (or mortar) together. Whereas the Romans incorporated locally available rocks, volcanic debris called “pozzolan,” and recycled rubble from demolition projects into their concrete, modern concrete is made by mixing cement with various types of sand and gravel. 

To compare the sustainability of producing Roman and modern concrete, the researchers used models to estimate the volume of raw materials required (e.g., limestone and water) for each concrete type and the amount of CO2 and air pollutants produced. Since Roman concrete was not made uniformly, they compared multiple ancient recipes that used different proportions of limestone and pozzolan. For the Roman recipes, they also compared the sustainability of ancient and modern production techniques and the use of different forms of energy (e.g., fossil fuels, wood or other biomass, or renewable energy). 

To their surprise, the researchers showed that, per volume of concrete, producing Roman concrete results in similar—and, in some cases, more—CO2 compared to modern concrete formulations.  

“Contrary to our initial expectations, adopting Roman formulations with current technology may not yield substantial reductions in emissions or energy demand,” says Martinez. “Using biomass and other alternative fuels to fire kilns may prove more effective in decarbonizing modern cement production than implementing Roman concrete formulations.” 

However, the researchers estimated that Roman concrete production would result in lower emissions of air pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide, which are harmful to human health. These reductions, which ranged from 11%–98%, were present whether Roman concrete production was fueled by fossil fuels, biomass, or renewable energy, but renewable energy resulted in the biggest reductions. 

In addition to being potentially less harmful to people, Roman concrete is also thought to be more durable, which could make it a more sustainable option over time, especially for high usage applications like roads and highways, which typically require regular maintenance and replacement. “When we take concrete’s service life into consideration, that’s when we start seeing benefits,” says Martinez.  

“In cases where prolonging the use of concrete can reduce the need to manufacture new materials, more durable concrete has the potential to reduce environmental impact,” says author and engineer Sabbie Miller of the University of California, Davis, USA. 

However, it’s very difficult to make this comparison, because modern concrete has only been produced for the past 200 years, and, unlike modern reinforced concrete, the ancient Roman structures did not use steel bars to increase strength. “Corrosion of steel reinforcement is the main cause of concrete deterioration, so comparisons should be made with great care,” says author and engineer Paulo Monteiro of the University of California, Berkeley, USA.  

In the future, the researchers plan to develop more in-depth analyses to compare the performance and lifespan of Roman and modern concrete in different scenarios. 

“There’s a lot of lessons that we can draw from the Romans,” says Martinez. “If we can incorporate their strategies with our modern innovative ideas, we can create a more sustainable built environment.” 

___________________________

Article Source: Cell Press news release.

*iScience, Martinez et al., “How sustainable was Ancient Roman concrete?” https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)01313-6

Cover Image, Top Left: The Pantheon, in Rome. Leonhard_Niederwimmer, Pixabay

American Chemical Society—Decades ago, archaeologists discovered a sticky substance in a copper jar in an ancient Greek shrine. And until recently, the identity of the residue was still murky — is it a mixture of fats, oils and beeswax or something else? Researchers publishing in the Journal of the American Chemical Society have reanalyzed samples of the residue using modern analytical techniques and determined that it’s likely the remains of ancient honey — a conclusion previous analyses rejected.

Honey was an important substance in the ancient world, sometimes left in shrines as offerings to the gods or buried alongside the dead. In 1954, one such underground Greek shrine dating to around 520 BCE was discovered in Paestum, Italy — about an hour and a half’s drive from Pompeii. Inside were several bronze jars containing a sticky residue. At the time, archaeologists assumed it was honey, originally offered as honeycombs. Then, three different teams over the course of 30 years analyzed the residue but failed to confirm the presence of honey, instead concluding that the jars contained some sort of animal or vegetable fat contaminated with pollen and insect parts. But when the residue came to the Ashmolean Museum for an exhibition, a team of researchers led by Luciana da Costa Carvalho, James McCullagh had a chance to reexamine the mystery substance and collect new scientific evidence.

The researchers analyzed samples of the residue using several modern analytical techniques to determine its molecular makeup. They found that:

• The ancient residue had a chemical fingerprint nearly identical to that of modern beeswax and modern honey, with a higher acidity level that was consistent with changes after long-term storage.
• The residue’s chemical composition was more complex than that of the heat-degraded beeswax, suggesting the presence of honey or other substances.
• Where the residue had touched the bronze jar, degraded sugar mixed with copper was found.
• Hexose sugars, a common group of sugars found in honey, were detected in higher concentrations in the ancient residue than in modern beeswax.
• Royal jelly proteins (known to be secreted by the western honeybee) were also identified in the residue.

These results suggest that the ancient substance is what is left of ancient honey. However, the researchers can’t exclude the possibility that other bee products may also be present.

“Ancient residues aren’t just traces of what people ate or offered to the gods — they are complex chemical ecosystems,” explains da Costa Carvalho. “Studying them reveals how those substances changed over time, opening the door to future work on ancient microbial activity and its possible applications.”

____________________________

This bronze jar on display at the Ashmolean Museum contained a mysterious substance (shown in the foreground) that is very likely ancient honey. Adapted from the Journal of the American Chemical Society 2025, DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5c04888

____________________________

This is likely what 2,500-year-old honey looks like, according to new tests using modern techniques.  Luciana da Costa Carvalho

____________________________

The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a nonprofit organization founded in 1876 and chartered by the U.S. Congress. ACS is committed to improving all lives through the transforming power of chemistry. Its mission is to advance scientific knowledge, empower a global community and champion scientific integrity, and its vision is a world built on science. The Society is a global leader in promoting excellence in science education and providing access to chemistry-related information and research through its multiple research solutions, peer-reviewed journals, scientific conferences, e-books and weekly news periodical Chemical & Engineering News. ACS journals are among the most cited, most trusted and most read within the scientific literature; however, ACS itself does not conduct chemical research. As a leader in scientific information solutions, its CAS division partners with global innovators to accelerate breakthroughs by curating, connecting and analyzing the world’s scientific knowledge. ACS’ main offices are in Washington, D.C., and Columbus, Ohio

___________________________

Article Source: American Chemical Society news release

Frontiers—It’s hard to tell when — and why — our ancestors got down from trees and started walking on two legs. Many early hominins capable of bipedal walking were also well-adapted for climbing, and we lack fossil evidence from a key period when climate change turned forests into open, dry woodland called savannah-mosaic, which might have pushed hominins onto the ground. Now a study on modern chimpanzees could help fill in the gaps. Scientists observing chimpanzees in the Issa Valley, Tanzania have shown that despite living in a savannah-mosaic, they frequently climb trees for valuable food — potentially explaining why early hominins kept their arboreal adaptations.  

“For decades it was assumed that bipedalism arose because we came down from the trees and needed to walk across an open savannah,” said Dr Rhianna Drummond-Clarke of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, lead author of the article in Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. “Here we show that safely and effectively navigating the canopy can remain very important for a large, semi-arboreal ape, even in open habitat. Adaptations to arboreal, rather than terrestrial, living may have been key in shaping the early evolution of the human lineage.” 

Habitats and hunger 

Issa Valley is divided between a small amount of thick forest surrounding riverbanks and open woodland. The chimpanzees forage more in the woodland during the dry season, when it offers more food. Their habitat and diet are comparable to those of some early hominins, which means their behavior might offer insights into those extinct hominins’ lives.  

“Our previous research found that, compared to chimpanzees living in forests, Issa Valley chimpanzees spent just as much time moving in the trees,” said Drummond-Clarke. “We wanted to test if something about how they foraged could explain their unexpectedly high arboreality. Savannah-mosaics are characterized by more sparsely distributed trees, so we hypothesized that adapting behavior to forage efficiently in a tree would be especially beneficial when the next tree is further away.” 

Researchers monitored the adults of the Issa community during the dry season, watching how they foraged in trees and what they ate there. The size, height, and shape of the trees were recorded, as well as the number and size of branches.  

Issa chimpanzees mostly ate fruit, followed by leaves and flowers — foods found at the ends of branches, so the chimpanzees needed to be capable climbers to reach them safely. They spent longer foraging in trees that were larger and offered more food. The longest foraging sessions, and the most specialized behaviors to navigate thinner terminal branches, were seen in trees with large open crowns offering lots of food: perhaps abundant food justified the extra time and effort. A similar trade-off between the nutritional benefits of specific foods and the effort of acquiring them could also explain why chimpanzees spent longer in trees while eating nutritionally-rich, hard-to-access seeds. 

Fast food 

Because they are relatively large, chimpanzees move within trees not by climbing on thin branches but by hanging under them, or standing upright and holding on to nearby branches with their hands. Although these ‘safe’ behaviors are traditionally associated with foraging in dense forest, these findings show they’re also important for chimpanzees foraging in a savannah-mosaic. 

“We suggest our bipedal gait continued to evolve in the trees even after the shift to an open habitat,” said Drummond-Clarke. “Observational studies of great apes demonstrate they can walk on the ground for a few steps, but most often use bipedalism in the trees. It’s logical that our early hominin relatives also engaged in this kind of bipedalism, where they can hold onto branches for extra balance. If Issa Valley chimpanzees can be considered suitable models, suspensory and bipedal behaviors were likely vital for a large-bodied, fruit-eating, semi-terrestrial hominin to survive in an open habitat.”  

However, the researchers say that we need more fossil evidence and more studies on different aspects of chimpanzee foraging to test this idea. 

“This study only looked at foraging behavior during the dry season,” cautioned Drummond-Clarke. “It would be interesting to investigate if these patterns remain during the wet season. Analyses of the nutritional value of foods and overall food availability are also needed to test our hypothesis that a strategy of foraging for longer in large trees on certain foods is energy-efficient in an open habitat.  

“Importantly, this is also only one community of chimpanzees. Future studies of other chimpanzees living in such dry, open habitats will be vital to see if these patterns are truly a savannah-mosaic signal or unique to Issa.” 

_______________________________

Article Source: Frontiers news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Maggots may be the secret ingredient responsible for extremely high nitrogen values found in Neanderthal remains, new research suggests. The work challenges an established theory that Late Pleistocene hominins ate as much fatty meat as lions, wolves, and other hypercarnivores. Eurasian Neanderthal remains have very high nitrogen isotope values, on par with those typically seen in hypercarnivores at the top of the food web. Archaeologists originally attributed these extremely high levels to heavy consumption of mammoth and other large land species. “While it is possible for humans to subsist on a very ‘carnivorous’ diet, many traditional northern hunter-gatherers such as the Inuit subsisted mostly on animal foods, hominins simply cannot tolerate the high levels of protein consumption that large predators can,” Melanie Beasley and colleagues note. They point towards an alternate nitrogen source: maggots. Ethnographic records report that some Indigenous cultures historically consumed putrefied food ripe with larvae for extra nutrients. Beasley et al. theorize that Neanderthals probably did as well. To confirm that maggots can even contain such high nitrogen values, they conducted stable nitrogen isotope ratio analyses on 389 larvae from three fly families (Calliphoridae, Piophilidae, and Stratiomyidae) gathered from the flesh of postmortem donors putrefying over two years in a forensic anthropology laboratory. Results showed that the maggots had far greater nitrogen values (as high as 43.2%) than the levels present in tissue and decomposed tissue alone. “It is the maggots, more so than the carcass tissues themselves, that gave Late Pleistocene hominins both a rich source of fat and a very highly ¹⁵N-enriched source of protein,” Beasley et al. conclude.

__________________________

Article Source: AAAS news release

University of Kansas, LAWRENCE — A University of Kansas researcher has spent years studying “aquaterra” — his term for regions around the world once populated by ancient humans that today are submerged under water due to sea-level changes.

Jerome Dobson, KU professor emeritus of geography, believes these regions — typically extending from continental coasts and surrounding scattered islands — contain vast archaeological treasures and answers about ancient humanity, and deserve much more research attention.

Dobson and Italian colleagues Giorgio Spada of the University of Bologna and Gaia Galassi of the University of Urbino recently published a reexamination of ancient human migratory routes from Africa, where homo sapiens first evolved, based on a newly improved glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) model of historical sea levels along with DNA and archaeological data.

An improved simulation of ancient sea levels can reveal how melting glaciers — continuing long after the Last Glacial Maximum — may have transformed migration pathways and shaped the rise of civilizations in Africa.

The new research appears in the peer-reviewed journal Comptes Rendus Géoscience, published by the Académie des sciences, heir to the Comptes Rendus des Séances hebdomadaires de l’Académie des Sciences, founded in 1835 by Arago.

“The exciting implication is that a lot of underwater landscapes have archaeological relevance, and this mapping gives scientists a better shot at finding them,” Dobson said. “We hope this enables people to see and explore the landscapes that were exposed during the last ice age — especially at the Last Glacial Maximum 21,000 years ago.”

Dobson’s study* refines understanding of ocean levels, coastlines and ancient migratory corridors in Africa and West Asia, using the new sea-level data to explore alternative land and sea routes into and out of Africa. These include the Suez crossing between the Red and Mediterranean seas, the Gulf of Aqaba route to the Levant, the Bab el Mandab crossing to Saudi Arabia, the crossing from Foul Bay to the Mediterranean Sea, and the island route across the Sicily and Messina straits.

“We wanted to generate coastlines that are physically and geophysically correct,” said the KU researcher. “Researchers need to use GIA modeling because simply subtracting sea-level height from topography isn’t enough. The Earth’s crust literally warps under the weight of ice sheets.”

According to the findings, some of these important migration routes were exposed by retreating seas for much longer than was known previously, though they varied with regional sea-level fluctuations.

Dobson and his co-authors also used datasets of DNA to reconstruct how human beings migrated out of Africa — seeing where they align with possible geographical routes.

“We benefited from a newly published map of DNA centers going back 2 million years,” Dobson said. “It shows a single ancient origin in the south, near Meroe in Kush, well into Africa. The archaeological evidence is sparse, while the DNA evidence is strong and consistent.”

The team sought to trace early human migration from the first-known centers of humanity. They examined northern routes through the Sinai Peninsula and southern routes that cross the Red Sea at the Bab el-Mandeb.

“The early human haplotype center appears to be in northeast Sudan,” Dobson said. “That wasn’t a shock, somewhat expected by the DNA experts who discovered it. There were clear connections going up into the Levant. Archaeological literature often emphasizes the southern route across the Bab el-Mandeb, but the maps they produce show little connection between the western and eastern sides of that divide.”

Dobson said that although the Bab el-Mandeb is the narrowest passage geographically, it might have been a major barrier depending on the watercraft of that time.

“People who study this deeply say the northern route — through the Sinai — is well established,” said the KU researcher. “The southern one, across Bab el-Mandeb, looks much less supported by archaeology based on the new data.”

Dobson and his co-authors considered other migratory routes and crossings. Their findings show south-to-north and east-to-west directions of human occupancy in the Nile Valley and highlight the site of Berenice on Foul Bay along the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea as a port or potential point of crossing.

“Two things make Foul Bay important: First, it’s an alternative route when sea level is low,” Dobson said. “The Isthmus of Suez is over 500 kilometers across — such a long, dry crossing. We expected people would prefer going up through Foul Bay to the First Cataract of the Nile, which would only be a 300-kilometer route. Even in favorable times, people are concerned with long north-south voyages on the Red Sea, which is narrow and has tremendous coral reefs, especially on the western side. Foul Bay would be an important alternative for anyone going from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean or vice versa.”

The KU researcher asserts that with the new information about Berenice, people should reexamine migration into the Nile Valley before or during the glacial maximum. Coral reefs near Foul Bay might hold more clues, according to Dobson.

“It is well established that coral reefs, including patch coral reefs, are dependent on a solid base,” he said. “Our circumstantial evidence is intriguing, but it demands confirmation through rigorous searches for evidence of human construction.”

Because the GIA data developed by the research team is open access, it can serve future research in disciplines like geography, archaeology, migration studies, climate-change science and species conservation.

“This is a community resource,” Dobson said. “We wanted to put these reconstructions in investigators’ hands so they can explore their own regions of interest — where humans lived, what the land looked like, and how it changed.”

____________________________

Reference map showing natural features cited, cities, and known routes connecting the Nile River, Foul Bay, Gulf of Suez, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea throughout history. Dobson et al

____________________________

Article Source: University of Kansas news release.

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem—A new study from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem reveals that Neanderthals living in two nearby caves in northern Israel—butchered their food in noticeably different ways. Despite using the same tools and hunting the same prey, groups in Amud and Kebara caves left behind distinct patterns of cut-marks on animal bones, suggesting that food preparation techniques may have been culturally specific and passed down through generations. These differences cannot be explained by tool type, skill, or available resources, and may reflect practices such as drying or aging meat before butchering. The findings provide rare insight into the social and cultural complexity of Neanderthal communities.

Neanderthals lived in the nearby caves of Amud and Kebara between 50 and 60,000 years ago, using the same tools and hunting the same prey. But due to the research lead by Anaelle Jallon from the Institute of Archeology (supervisors Rivka Rabinovich and Erella Hovers) with colleagues from the Natural History Museum of London, Lucille Crete and Silvia Bello, studying the cutmarks on the remains of their prey have found that the two groups seem to have butchered their food in visibly different ways, which can’t be explained by the skill of the butchers or the resources or tools used at each site. These differences could represent distinct cultural food practices, such as drying meat before butchering it.

Did Neanderthals have family recipes? A new study suggests that two groups of Neanderthals living in the caves of Amud and Kebara in northern Israel butchered their food in strikingly different ways, despite living close by and using similar tools and resources. Scientists think they might have been passing down different food preparation practices.

“The subtle differences in cut-mark patterns between Amud and Kebara may reflect local traditions of animal carcass processing,” said Anaëlle Jallon, PhD candidate at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and lead author of the article in Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology. “Even though Neanderthals at these two sites shared similar living conditions and faced comparable challenges, they seem to have developed distinct butchery strategies, possibly passed down through social learning and cultural traditions.

“These two sites give us a unique opportunity to explore whether Neanderthal butchery techniques were standardized,” explained Jallon. “If butchery techniques varied between sites or time periods, this would imply that factors such as cultural traditions, cooking preferences, or social organization influenced even subsistence-related activities such as butchering.”

Written in the bones

Amud and Kebara are close to each other: only 70 kilometers apart. Neanderthals occupied both caves during the winters between 50 and 60,000 years ago, leaving behind burials, stone tools, hearths, and food remains. Both groups used the same flint tools and relied on the same prey for their diet — mostly gazelles and fallow deer. But there are some subtle differences between the two. The Neanderthals living at Kebara seem to have hunted more large prey than those at Amud, and they also seem to have carried more large kills home to butcher them in the cave rather than at the site of the kill.

At Amud, 40% of the animal bones are burned and most are fragmented. This could be caused by deliberate actions like cooking or by later accidental damage. At Kebara, 9% of the bones are burned, but less fragmented, and are thought to have been cooked. The bones at Amud also seem to have undergone less carnivore damage than those found at Kebara.

To investigate the differences between food preparation at Kebara and at Amud, the scientists selected a sample of cut-marked bones from contemporaneous layers at the two sites. They examined these macroscopically and microscopically, recording the cut-marks’ different characteristics. Similar patterns of cut-marks might suggest there were no differences in butchery practices, while different patterns might indicate distinct cultural traditions.

The cut-marks were clear and intact, largely unaffected by later damage caused by carnivores or the drying out of the bones. The profiles, angles, and surface widths of these cuts were similar, likely due to the two groups’ similar toolkits. However, the cut-marks found at Amud were more densely packed and less linear in shape than those at Kebara.

Cooking from scratch

The researchers considered several possible explanations for this pattern. It could have been driven by the demands of butchering different prey species or different types of bones — most of the bones at Amud, but not Kebara, are long bones — but when they only looked at the long bones of small ungulates found at both Amud and Kebara, the same differences showed up in the data. Experimental archaeology also suggests this pattern couldn’t be accounted for by less skilled butchers or by butchering more intensively to get as much food as possible. The different patterns of cut-marks are best explained by deliberate butchery choices made by each group.

One possible explanation is that the Neanderthals at Amud were treating meat differently before butchering it: possibly drying their meat or letting it decompose, like modern-day butchers hanging meat before cooking. Decaying meat is harder to process, which would account for the greater intensity and less linear form of the cut-marks. A second possibility is that different group organization — for example, the number of butchers who worked on a given kill — in the two communities of Neanderthals played a role.

However, more research will be needed to investigate these possibilities.

“There are some limitations to consider,” said Jallon. “The bone fragments are sometimes too small to provide a complete picture of the butchery marks left on the carcass. While we have made efforts to correct for biases caused by fragmentation, this may limit our ability to fully interpret the data. Future studies, including more experimental work and comparative analyses, will be crucial for addressing these uncertainties — and maybe one day reconstructing Neanderthals’ recipes.”

_______________________________

A specimen being scanned on one of the confocal microscopes. (Credit: Anaelle Jallon)

_______________________________

The scan of a specimen from Amud. (Credit: Anaelle Jallon)

_______________________________

The entrance of Amud cave. (Credit: Anaelle Jallon)

_______________________________

The entrance of Kebara cave. (Credit: Erella Hovers)

_______________________________

Article Source: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem news release.

*Cut from the same cloth? Comparing Neanderthal processing of faunal resources at Amud and Kebara caves (Israel) through cut-marks analyses, Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology, 17-Jul-2025. 10.3389/fearc.2025.1575572 

A team of archaeologists, led by Baylor University’s Davide Zori, Ph.D., principal investigator for San Giuliano Archaeological Research Project (SGARP), has uncovered a rare, intact Etruscan chamber tomb in central Italy – a discovery hailed as one of the most significant finds in recent decades for understanding the ancient pre-Roman civilization. 

The sealed chamber tomb at San Giuliano – a site located approximately 70 km northwest of Rome – dates back 2,600 years, according to Zori, who also serves as associate professor of history and archaeology in the Baylor Interdisciplinary Core (BIC) in the Honors College.

Inside the undisturbed tomb, the remains of four individuals lay on carved stone beds surrounded by more than 100 remarkably well-preserved grave goods, including ceramic vases, iron weapons, bronze ornaments and delicate silver hair spools.

“This completely sealed burial chamber represents a rare find for Etruscan archaeology,” Zori said. “In the internal hilly region of central Italy, where the SGARP team works, a preserved chamber tomb of this age has never before been excavated with modern archaeological techniques. It is a unique opportunity for our project to study the beliefs and burial traditions of this fascinating pre-Roman culture.” 

Global collaboration

SGARP is a Baylor-led interdisciplinary team of archaeologists, art historians, geologists and historians working in partnership with the Virgil Academy in Rome under the auspices of Italy’s Ministry of Culture and in full partnership with the town of Barbarano Romano. Students from Baylor University join the project every summer as part of a study abroad course, “Archaeology in Research in Italy,” led by Zori.

The program, which began in 2016, has made significant discoveries throughout the years, but this particular study demonstrates firsthand how archaeological discoveries emerge from careful fieldwork and systematic analysis. Zori said it’s through this process that significant finds result from “patience, persistence and collaborative effort rather than dramatic moments of revelation.” 

Over the years, the team has documented over 600 tombs in the necropolis surrounding the Etruscan town, which sits atop the San Giuliano Plateau in the Lazio province in central Italy. Until the discovery of the intact tomb, all the other identified chamber tombs – carved out of the rock in the shape of small houses with pitched roofs – had been looted over the centuries, beginning as early as the Roman occupation in the late third century B.C. 

Preliminary analysis of the tomb objects suggests that the buried individuals might be two male-female pairs, but further conclusions await anthropological, isotopic and genetic study of the remains. 

“The SGARP team has completed the excavation of the tomb, but the study and analysis of the archaeological data yielded by this incredible discovery is just beginning,” Zori said.

Academic impact

As an active field school since 2016, the academic opportunities and educational impact of this discovery extend far beyond the immediate research team. Zori said the excavation of the intact Etruscan tomb represents more than just an archaeological discovery – it embodies the potential of interdisciplinary collaboration, international partnership and educational innovation to advance human understanding of a shared cultural heritage.

Baylor undergraduates have participated directly in every aspect of the excavation process, from initial site preparation through the careful documentation now underway, which represents an incredible opportunity to bring their education into a first-hand, real-world experience. Zori said students gained hands-on experience with stratigraphic excavation, artifact documentation and preservation protocols – such as the cleaning of the vases, sherds and other items – while working within the framework of Italian heritage law and international academic collaboration.

“Being part of a project that uncovered an unlooted tomb was extremely surreal,” said Kendall Peterson, senior anthropology major from San Antonio, TX. “It is something that archaeologists hope for their entire careers, and it was incredibly emotional to witness not only our professors’ reactions but also the pride and excitement of the local community of Barbarano. It reminded me that we aren’t just studying artifacts, we’re contributing to a shared cultural heritage that still deeply matters to the people who live there today.”

“In addition to the work of receiving, processing, and cataloging finds from the excavation, we also regularly work to engage the local community in their cultural heritage,” said Jerolyn E. Morrison, Ph.D., project laboratory director and temporary lecturer in Baylor’s Department of Art & Art History. “Many members of the town of Barbarano Romano, as well as academic guests, visited the lab to view the vases and the students participated too.

“Welcoming people into the lab was a strong reminder of how wonderfully powerful objects are, and how these artifacts from the tomb connect all of us both to the past and to each other,” Morrison added.

Engaged learning

The breakthrough showcases the power of interdisciplinary research, international collaboration and hands-on student engagement in one of history’s most storied landscapes. 

“For Baylor University, this discovery validates our commitment to international collaboration and demonstrates how American universities can contribute meaningfully to global archaeological research while providing transformative educational experiences for our students,” Zori said. 

For co-principal investigator Jamie Aprile, Ph.D., supervisor of the excavation area where the tomb was discovered and incoming adjunct lecturer in the BIC this fall, “the culmination of our sustained work has yielded a breakthrough of considerable scientific value.”

“This discovery establishes our program as a serious contributor to Mediterranean archaeology through methodical, collaborative research that produces results of international significance,” Aprile said. “It will reshape scholarly discussions about Etruscan cultural development.”

Numerous Baylor students, faculty members and administrators have visited the site over the years, including President Linda A. Livingstone and Provost Nancy Brickhouse, as well as Honors College Dean Douglas Henry, who joined the team on site this summer. 

“The Etruscan chamber tomb excavated this summer is, of course, astonishing with its array of exceptional intact pottery and other artifacts. Walking into that space and seeing the finds in situ is an experience I will long remember,” Henry said. “There is so much to tell – what was found and why it matters, who found it and how, the tie-ins to Baylor’s R1 status, undergraduate teaching and mentoring, global engagement and more. Beyond this particular discovery, what the Zoris are doing is incredibly admirable. It’s a class-act project in every way.” 

______________________________

David Zori, Ph.D., project director and principal investigator, prepares to remove a massive stone slab that has been protecting the tomb’s entrance for more than 2600 years. (Credit: Jerilyn Morrison)

______________________________

The Etruscan tomb held the remains of four individuals laid out on beds carved of stone, surrounded by a perfectly preserved snapshot of Etruscan funerary practices. (Credit: Jerilyn Morrison)

______________________________

A total of 74 nearly completely intact pots were found inside the tomb. (Credit: Jerilyn Morrison)

______________________________

__________________________________

ABOUT BAYLOR UNIVERSITY

Baylor University is a private Christian University and a nationally ranked Research 1 institution. The University provides a vibrant campus community for more than 20,000 students by blending interdisciplinary research with an international reputation for educational excellence and a faculty commitment to teaching and scholarship. Chartered in 1845 by the Republic of Texas through the efforts of Baptist pioneers, Baylor is the oldest continually operating University in Texas. Located in Waco, Baylor welcomes students from all 50 states and more than 100 countries to study a broad range of degrees among its 12 nationally recognized academic divisions. Learn more about Baylor University at www.baylor.edu. 

ABOUT SAN GIULIANO ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROJECT

The San Giuliano Archaeological Research Project (SGARP), SGARP is a transdisciplinary research program and field school that focuses on the archaeological past of San Giuliano, a site situated approximately 70 km northwest of Rome, within Marturanum Park in the province of Lazio. SGARP is a collaboration between a Baylor University-led consortium of universities and Virgil Academy in Rome that functions in full partnership with the town of Barbarano Romano and under the auspices of the Soprintendenza Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio per la provincia di Viterbo e per l’Etruria Meridionale.

SGARP’s goal is to reconstruct the long-term changes in human occupation of the San Giuliano Plateau and the surrounding hills. Hundreds of rock-cut Etruscan tombs ring the plateau, which was itself the likely site of the associated Etruscan town. SGARP seeks to investigate the Etruscan occupation and understand the transitions that followed, including incorporation into the Roman Empire, transformation into a medieval castle, and the final abandonment of the site sometime before AD 1300.

ABOUT THE HONORS COLLEGE AT BAYLOR UNIVERSITY 

The Honors College at Baylor University unites four innovative interdisciplinary programs – the Honors Program, University Scholars, Baylor Interdisciplinary Core and Great Texts – with a shared commitment to providing undergraduate students the opportunity to pursue questions that often fall between the cracks of the specialized disciplines. For more information, visit the Honors College website. 

_____________________________

Article by  Shelby Cefaratti-Bertin

The “Scientific-Archaeological Excavations and Summer School-5 at Keshikchidagh” project, jointly organized by the Cultural Heritage Protection, Development and Restoration Service under the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology of ANAS, has once again yielded remarkable scientific results this year. This project, which has been continuously implemented for five years and is one of the first systematic archaeological summer schools in the country, has become a tradition enriched with unique discoveries in Azerbaijani archaeology. Nearly 2,000 participants have taken part in the excavation process, and both public and scientific interest have grown concurrently.

The excavation area was closely followed by academic staff and students of Baku State University’s Gazakh Branch, graduate students of the ADA University’s Gazakh Center, employees of local reserves, staff and volunteers from the Youth Houses of Aghstafa and Gazakh, regional history museums, and history teachers from local secondary schools. Within the scope of the project, a newly discovered kurgan dating to the Middle Bronze Age and the exceptional archaeological materials obtained from it attracted particular attention, prompting the Director of the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology of ANAS, PhD in History, Associate Professor Farhad Guliyev, to visit the “Yovsanlidere” kurgans. During the visit, he exchanged views with archaeologists at the excavation site and emphasized the successful continuation of the project, highlighting plans to involve not only local but also international specialists in future stages.

The project was conducted in the Ceyranchol plain, in an area locally known as “Yovsanlidere”.  The expedition was led by Dr. Shamil Najafov, Associate Professor and Senior Researcher at the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology of ANAS. Under his direction, a Middle Bronze Age kurgan-28 meters in diameter and 2 meters in height-containing the burial of a military leader, was excavated, revealing rich artifacts. The burial chamber, measuring 2 meters in width, 6 meters in length, and 3 meters in depth, was divided into three sections: one containing the human skeleton and personal equipment, another with ceramic vessels, and a third left completely empty. This division is believed to symbolically reflect a belief in the afterlife, possibly representing a space for the deceased’s soul to be nourished and to find peace.

The interred warrior (estimated to have been over 2 meters tall) was buried in a semi-flexed position. Among the items discovered were a four-pronged bronze spearhead held in the hand, bronze adornments around the ankle, paste beads, obsidian tools, and twelve inlaid and intricately decorated ceramic jugs. These jugs feature complex dotted and impressed motifs on their necks and shoulders, filled with a white inlay substance. Inside the vessels were bones of cooked animals (goat, cow, horse, boar), interpreted as provisions for the afterlife. These findings are considered significant evidence of the military technology, social hierarchy, and burial rituals of the time.

The anatomical positioning of the skeleton and the placement of the spearhead indicate the individual’s warrior status and suggest that the burial was conducted with special ritual practices. This type of spearhead is considered extraordinarily rare not only in Azerbaijan but across the entire South Caucasus region.

Above the kurgan, after 0.5 meters of soil, 14 opposing placed limestone slabs – each weighing approximately 1 ton, 0.60 meters wide, and 2 meters long-were uncovered, along with a stone idol shaped like a bull placed at the head of the kurgan. A circular limestone seal found within the earthen kurgan provides new insights into early forms of administrative control and concepts of property ownership.

One of the most significant aspects of this project is that each artifact was graphically documented and professionally sketched in situ, with their structural and functional features recorded. Fragmented finds were restored directly at the excavation site.

The introduction of the term “Keshikchidagh Kurgans” into scholarly circulation can be regarded as one of the greatest achievements of this project. The discovery of Middle Bronze Age kurgans and rare artifacts has attracted the attention of not only local but also international academic communities. Plans are currently underway to conduct international laboratory analyses, including Carbon-14 dating, isotope analysis, metallography, and mineralogical composition studies of the materials. The results of these studies are intended for publication in leading archaeological and anthropological journals worldwide. Additionally, the preparation and publication of a new scholarly-theoretical book encompassing all the unique finds from the Keshikchidagh excavations-complete with photographs, graphic sketches, and scientific commentary – is also among the project’s primary goals.

______________________________

Panoramic view of the ancient kurgan site, prior to excavation. Courtesy Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan

______________________________

Aerial view of the team excavating the burial sections/chambers of the site. Courtesy Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan

______________________________

Skeletal remains of the burial with associated artifacts. Courtesy Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan

______________________________

The bronze spearhead. Courtesy Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan

______________________________

Ceramic ware associated with the burial. Courtesy Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan

______________________________

Article Source: Keshikchidag DTMQ news release.