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Popular Archaeology Magazine sends group to newly discovered ancient site in Peru

Posted on February 2, 2015 by Ian Gerson -

For the first time, a promising, newly discovered monumental archaeological site in northern Peru may see its first exposure to an organized tour expedition group consisting of members of the public, bloggers, photographers, and freelance writers.

The area, where archaeologists began full-scale excavations in 2014 and where forthcoming additional surveys and excavations will explore several monumental sites in close proximity in the Upper Nepeña Valley of Peru, has thus far yielded finds that suggest human occupation as far back as at least 3,000 years.

Led by project director Kimberly Munro, an Andean archaeologist and PhD student at Louisiana State University, along with Lic. Jeisen Navarro, a professional Peruvian archaeologist and co-director of the new project, and Dr. David Chicoine, also of Louisiana State University, the team is in the first stages of unearthing the ancient sites that, together, bespeak a possible associated complex of structures with beginnings at least as long ago as ancient Peru’s “Early Horizon” period (900 – 1 BCE). What has been investigated thus far includes a mound about 250 meters long and 70 meters wide and featuring an underground gallery and truncated top; a smaller mound featuring signs of exposed architecture at its top; and a hilltop fortress-like structure. Collectively, they are known as the archaeological site of Cosma, named after the nearby small village.

“Cosma is located in an ecological region which has largely been ignored by researchers,” Munro says. And because of their location in the upper reaches of the coastal river valley, says Munro, they could offer a glimpse into ancient inter-regional interactions that many other sites could not afford.

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The Cosma sites are located in the scenic upper coastal Nepeña River Valley. The sites have been relatively unexplored until now. Courtesy Kimberly Munro and the Cosma Archaeological Project

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The 2014 excavations uncovered a set of stairs leading into the underground gallery within the main mound at the Cosma archaeological site. Courtesy Kimberly Munro and the Cosma Archaeological Project

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The 2014 excavations also revealed evidence of a circular room structure within the smaller mound. Courtesy Kimberly Munro and the Cosma Archaeological Project

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Excavations are scheduled to continue during the summer of 2015. But concurrent with that, Popular Archaeology Magazine plans to lead a group to visit the sites, affording members of the public, writers, and photographers the chance to see the sites and the ongoing excavations first-hand.

“The proposed tour expedition will permit the participants to see the exposed architecture and artifacts in person and give them the opportunity to ask questions of the project staff and take photographs at a working excavation within an exceptionally scenic and remote area hugging the Andes mountains,” says Popular Archaeology Magazine Editor in Chief Dan McLerran, who will be co-leading the group along with tour operator and local guide Juan Cardenas. The tour expedition will be conducted in collaboration with Far Horizons Archaeological and Cultural Trips, Inc.

“But more than this,” he continues, “we also plan to see a significant number of ancient sites in Peru during the tour, including such sites as Caral, the oldest known monumental city of the Americas, dating back to 2700 BCE, and even some iconic Inca sites such as Machu Picchu for those who want to stay a little longer.”

McLerran hopes that the tour expedition will play its small part in supporting archaeological research while also contributing to the economy of a rural village and the Peruvian services sector. McLerran maintains that services and the tourist industry play an important role in developing nations like Peru, where cultural resources are a significant resource that, if developed, can bring new jobs and income to the people of the country.

“Part of the proceeds from the tour will be donated to the Cosma archaeological project, which in turn will hopefully eventually have a positive income affect on the families of the rural villages in the area, and may bring more tourists and travelers to the area,” says McLerran. “A lot of people think that, when they go on a tour to a developing country, they’re just spending a lot of money on a vacation get-away and enriching their own lives — and while that is true, they don’t realize that they’re also contributing to the economies of those countries and the people who live there by infusing their dollars into services and products. This is especially true for countries and communities where their cultural and historical resources, such as archaeological sites, are among their greatest assets.”

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Aerial view of Caral, the New World’s oldest ancient monumental complex. Villa de Omas, Wikimedia Commons

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The Inca mountaintop site of Machu Picchu, Peru’s most iconic archaeological site. Wikimedia Commons

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More information about the expeditionary tour can be obtained at the website.

See the article about the latest excavations at Cosma, published in the Winter issue of Popular Archaeology Magazine.

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Popular Archaeology’s annual Discovery Edition eBook is a selection of the best stories published in Popular Archaeology Magazine in past issues, with an emphasis on some of the most significant, groundbreaking, or fascinating discoveries in the fields of archaeology and paleoanthropology and related fields. At least some of the articles have been updated or revised specifically for the Discovery edition. We can confidently say that there is no other single issue of an archaeology-related magazine, paper print or online, that contains as much major feature article content as this one. The latest issue, volume 2, has just been released. Go to the Discovery edition page for more information.

First Major Exhibition of Hellenistic Bronzes to Tour Internationally

Posted on January 31, 2015 by No Author -

Beginning in March 2015, the Palazzo Strozzi, Florence; the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles; and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., will present Power and Pathos: Bronze Sculpture of the Hellenistic World, the first major international exhibition to bring together approximately 50 ancient bronzes from the Mediterranean region and beyond ranging from the 4^th century B.C. to the 1^st century A.D.

During the Hellenistic era, artists around the Mediterranean created innovative, realistic sculptures of physical power and emotional intensity. Bronze—with its reflective surface, tensile strength, and ability to hold the finest details—was employed for dynamic compositions, graphic expressions of age and character, and dazzling displays of the human form.

From sculptures known since the Renaissance, such as the Arringatore (Orator) from Sanguineto (in the collection of the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Florence), to spectacular recent discoveries that have never before been exhibited in the United States, the exhibition is the most comprehensive museum survey of Hellenistic bronzes ever organized. In each showing of the exhibition, recent finds—many salvaged from the sea—will be exhibited for the first time alongside well-known works. The works of art on view will range in scale from statuettes, busts and heads to life-size figures and herms. Just one example, illustrated below right, is the bronze Portrait of a Man, dated to 100 BC.*

Power and Pathos: Bronze Sculpture of the Hellenistic World is especially remarkable for bringing together works of art that, because of their rarity, are usually exhibited in isolation. When viewed in proximity to one another, the variety of styles and techniques employed by ancient sculptors is emphasized to greater effect, as are the varying functions and histories of the bronze sculptures.

Bronze was a material well-suited to reproduction, and the exhibition provides an unprecedented opportunity to see objects of the same type, and even from the same workshop, together for the first time.

The travel schedule for Power and Pathos: Bronze Sculpture of the Hellenistic World is:

Palazzo Strozzi, Florence, Italy

March 14 – June 21, 2015

www.palazzostrozzi.org

J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, CA

July 28 – November 1, 2015

www.getty.edu

National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

December 6, 2015 – March 20, 2016

www.nga.gov

This exhibition is curated by Jens Daehner and Kenneth Lapatin of the J. Paul Getty Museum and co-organized by the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles; the Fondazione Palazzo Strozzi, Florence; and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; with the participation of Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Toscana. It is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities.

Bank of America is the National Presenting Sponsor of this exhibition. The Los Angeles presentation is also supported by the Getty Museum’s Villa Council.

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The J. Paul Getty Trust is an international cultural and philanthropic institution devoted to the visual arts that includes the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Research Institute, the Getty Conservation Institute, and the Getty Foundation. The J. Paul Getty Trust and Getty programs serve a varied audience from two locations: the Getty Center in Los Angeles and the Getty Villa in Malibu.

The J. Paul Getty Museum collects in seven distinct areas, including Greek and Roman antiquities, European paintings, drawings, manuscripts, sculpture and decorative arts, and photographs gathered internationally. The Museum’s mission is to make the collection meaningful and attractive to a broad audience by presenting and interpreting the works of art through educational programs, special exhibitions, publications, conservation, and research.

Visiting the Getty Center

The Getty Center is open Tuesday through Friday and Sunday from 10 a.m. to 5:30 p.m., and Saturday from 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. It is closed Monday and most major holidays. Admission to the Getty Center is always free. Parking is $15 per car, but reduced to $10 after 5 p.m. on Saturdays and for evening events throughout the week. No reservation is required for parking or general admission. Reservations are required for event seating and groups of 15 or more. Please call (310) 440-7300 (English or Spanish) for reservations and information. The TTY line for callers who are deaf or hearing impaired is (310) 440-7305. The Getty Center is at 1200 Getty Center Drive, Los Angeles, California.

Additional information is available at www.getty.edu.

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*Image: Portrait of a Man, about 100 B.C. Bronze, white paste and dark stone, 32.5 x 22 x 22 cm. Courtesy of the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Photo: Marie Mauzy/Art Resource, NY

Source: Press release of the J.Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, CA.

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Archaeologists excavate Roman and Punic city in Tunisia.

Posted on January 30, 2015 by No Author -

During the summer of 2015, a team of archaeologists and other specialists and students will be exploring a large mound that contains the remains of an ancient city that once commanded the highest point on a peninsula that juts out from the southern coast of Tunisia into the Mediterranean. Visible from the island of Djerba, which was anciently known as Calypso of the Lotus Eaters in Homer’s The Odyssey, the mound features the remains from a Roman bathhouse, ceramic kilns, evidence of metallurgy, and a Punic tomb.

Dr. Brett Kaufman of Brown University and colleagues from UCLA and the Institut National du Patrimoine (INP), Tunisia, have been conducting research at the site known as Zita, (“Olive City” in Punic), since 2013. Their first two seasons have uncovered promising signs that will help shed light on the human occupation phases and changes in a location that will see the first archaeological teams at the site since the Arab Spring.

“During our first two seasons in 2013 and 2014,” state the project leaders in their project summary, “extensive survey and selected excavations at the site demonstrated occupation levels beginning at least 500 BCE and lasting at least until 400 CE, mostly abandoned around 300 CE. A tophet was identified with numerous stelae and burials well preserved. Also, portions of a Roman forum were exposed, clearly demonstrating continued occupation covering the Punic and Roman cultural horizons.”*

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Excavators taking and recording measurements in one of the areas at the Zita excavaton site. Credit: Zita Project on the Archaeology, Anthropology and Ethnography of Southern Tunisia

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The team’s goals for 2015 include mapping the ancient city, including the surrounding coastal and agricultural areas; and targeted excavation of key areas and features of the site, such as the Roman forum, the Punic sacrificial precinct, and domestic and metallurgical areas. In addition, project leadership states that it intends to “document the socioeconomic, political, religious, and ecological realities of the local populations from prehistory to the post-Arab Spring.”*

Individuals interested in learning more about the site and how to participate may go to the project website. Participation at the Zita excavations is being coordinated by the Institute for Field Research.

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* http://ifrglobal.org/images/2015/Syllabus/Syllabus-TunisiaZita2015-Final.pdf

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Read about the most fascinating discoveries with a premium subscription to Popular Archaeology Magazine. Find out what Popular Archaeology Magazine is all about. AND MORE:

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Winchester Model 1873 Found Abandoned in Nevada Desert

Posted on January 28, 2015 by Mark Hallum -

Mark Hallum is a staff writer for Popular Archaeology Magazine.

The Snake Mountains of Eastern Nevada are not easily explored. Rough terrain and remote territory make certain that lost items may remain undisturbed for prolonged periods of time. The lever-action 1873, spotted by archaeologist Eva Jensen, required very little excavating to recover by the staff at Great Basin National Park and has been a discovery that sent her into the archives to discover the identity of the rifle’s owner.

It was found propped up against a juniper. The manufacture date: 1882. The find was a lucky shot for Jensen who was with her team, scouting for Native American artifacts and petroglyphs prior to a prescribed burning of vegetation. The rifle was found with the stock buried an inch or two in the dirt and with a number of rocks supporting it. The wood was dried out and the steel body rusted thoroughly, but it was not enough to disguise the rifle from the trained eye of the 57-year-old archaeologist.

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The Winchester 1873 as discovered at the site. Courtesy National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior

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Since the discovery in early November, Jensen has found herself searching historical records—bills of purchase, newspapers, photographs, and letters—to hunt down the owner of the gun. Every rifle produced by the Winchester company was stamped with a serial number, and as consulted by the Buffalo Bill Museum in Cody, Wyoming, the rifle was manufactured in 1882. The order number for the rifle was even found and showed that the rifle was shipped from the warehouse in Connecticut that year. The trail, however, has gone cold, as there is no information as to where it was shipped.

According to Jensen, everybody she encounters seems to have a theory of how the gun was left, and the search continues for hard evidence to illustrate the events of that day. For now, the rifle is being kept in climate-controlled storage and will become part of the park’s public collection. The location of where the rifle was found has not been revealed.

The Winchester was a series of lever-action repeating rifles manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company. They were among the earliest repeaters. The model type 1873 discovered by Jensen was considered especially successful, and has been popularly called “The Gun that Won the West”.

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See the LA Times story for details.

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Archaic human skull provides new clues to modern human-Neanderthal contact

Posted on January 28, 2015 by No Author -

Modern Europeans have inherited about 4 percent of their genes from Neanderthals, meaning the two groups mated at some point in the past. But the question is, where and when?

Characteristics of a partial skull recently discovered in Manot Cave in Israel’s West Galilee provide the earliest evidence that modern humans co-inhabited the area with Neanderthals and could have met and interbred 55,000 years ago.

The finding—which challenges a previous hypothesis that the two species potentially met 45,000 years ago somewhere in Europe—is reported in the Advance Online Publication Nature article, “Levantine cranium from Manot Cave (Israel) foreshadows the First European modern humans.”

“It has been suspected that modern man and Neanderthals were in the same place at the same time, but we didn’t have the physical evidence. Now we do have it in the new skull fossil,” said paleontologist Bruce Latimer, from Case Western Reserve University School of Dental Medicine’s Department of Orthodontics.

The finding of Neanderthals living at other Levantine sites in the eastern Mediterranean region places the two species in the same area at about the same time. The Manot cave is located in the region where Neanderthals periodically lived, perhaps when ice sheets in Europe forced them to migrate to warmer locales, like the Levant region.

Manot is a prehistoric cave with an impressive archaeological sequence and spectacular speleothems. To date, five excavation seasons (2010-2014) have been conducted in the cave on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, Tel Aviv University and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. The cave is situated along the only land route available for ancient humans to travel out of Africa to the Middle East, Asia and Europe.

“Modern humans and Neanderthals likely encountered each other foraging for food,” Latimer said.

Latimer and Mark Hans, chair of CWRU’s Department of Orthodontics, were among a team of researchers that worked closely with the study’s lead investigator Israel Hershkovitz, professor of anatomy and anthropology at Tel Aviv University.

The partial cranium, covered in a patina of minerals produced by the wet conditions within the cave, allowed Miryam Bar-Matthews, Avner Ayalon and Gal Yas’ur from the Geological Survey of Israel to use uranium-thorium dating techniques and determine that the skull was between 50,000 to 60,000 years old.

Latimer said the skull contained a relatively small brain of around 1,100 milliliters. (The modern human brain averages around 1,400 milliliters.)

Several features of the cranium resemble modern man’s skull, Latimer said. In particular, he was interested in the cranium’s bony formation called the occipital bun on the back of the skull. While its purpose is unknown, the Neanderthal’s bun looks much like a bony hot dog bun with a groove down the center. This feature was absent in the Manot fossil, and is also typically missing in modern humans.

The fossil’s gender is unknown because it’s missing the brow ridge, one marker for gender differences. Because the skull is from an adult, CWRU researchers know it is not related to other sub-adult human teeth and bones also found in the cave, according to Hans.

“This leads us to believe that there are likely more fossils in the cave where other bones associated with the skull might be found,” Hans said.

Latimer became involved in the project after receiving an invitation from Hershkovitz to examine the fossil skull, discovered in 2008 by spelunkers who had rappelled through a newly opened roof of the previously unknown cave that had been sealed for 30,000 years.

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View inside the Manot Cave where excavations are taking place. Courtesy Manot Cave Expedition, Wikimedia Commons

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Under the direction of former dental school Dean Jerold Goldberg, Case Western Reserve formed a 10-year partnership with Israel Antiquities Authority and Tel Aviv University in 2012 to excavate the cave. As a result of this partnership, Latimer joined Hans to expand the scope of orthodontic research on craniofacial growth and development to include human evolution. The Manot Cave project also is part of Case Western Reserve’s initiative, called the Institute for the Science of Origins (ISO).

“Who we are, where we came from and how we got here are questions that have fascinated us humans since before there was history,” said Glenn Starkman, director of ISO and professor of physics, who studies origins of the universe. “We weaved wondrous myths that answered those questions definitively, but now we slowly accumulate evidence from the distant past. This process lies at the heart of the origins sciences, and the Institute for the Science of Origins celebrates the unique interdisciplinary collaboration that its fellows from the School of Dental Medicine deployed to uncover more of the story behind humanity’s departure from Africa for the world beyond.”

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The Manot Cave project is directed by Ofer Marder from Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Omry Barzilai from the Israel Antiquities Authority, Israel Hershkovitz from Tel Aviv University and Bruce Latimer from CWRU.

Also contributing to the study are: Avner Ayalon and Miryam Bar-Matthews (Geological Survey of Israel), Gal Yas’ur (Geological Survey of Israel and Hebrew University of Jerusalem); Elisabetta Boaretto and Valentina Caracuta (Max Planck Society-Weizmann Institute Center for Integrative Archaeology and Anthropology); Bridget Alex (Harvard University); Amos Frumkin, Alan Matthews and Mae Goder-Goldberg (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Philipp Gunz (Max-Planck-Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology); Ralph Holloway (Columbia University); Ron Lavi (Independent Researcher); Viviane Slon, Hila May and Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer (Tel Aviv University and University of Haifa), Francesco Berna (Simon Fraser University); Guy Bar-Oz and Reuven Yeshurun (University of Haifa); and Gerhard Weber (University of Vienna).

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Source: Edited from a Case Western Reserve University press release, Nature reports 55,000-year-old skull links modern man in vicinity of Neanderthals.

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Climate Change and the Rise and Fall of a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican City

Posted on January 26, 2015 by No Author -

By comparing and analyzing paleoclimate and cultural data, researchers are suggesting that draught conditions may have had a major impact on the rise and fall of a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican city in central Mexico.

Known as Cantona, the city’s ancient remains lie east of Mexico City in the semiarid basin called the Cuenca Oriental. Occupied from 600 BCE to 1050 CE, it thrived as an important player in the obsidian trade, reaching a peak population of 90,000 inhabitants by about 700 CE. Between 900 and 1050 CE, however, the record shows a precipitous decline and then abandonment, correlated with the driest part of an arid interval between 500 and 1150 CE. But the researchers found that the history as revealed by the data is a bit more complicated than that.

Led by Tripti Bhattacharya of the University of California, Berkeley, and colleagues, the research team conducted geochemistry and oxygen isotope analysis of the sediments of Aljojuca lake, which is located near the remains of Cantona, and compared it with the archaeological record. What they found indicated a correlation between both periods of expansion and decline during dry intervals, not just wet-and-dry oscillations. More specifically, the researchers noted that the population expanded in its initial phase between 600 BCE and 50 CE during a wet period, but continued with a strong expansion between 50 and 600 CE, despite a gradual drying trend over this period. But more interesting still was their finding that “despite intensifying aridity between 500 CE and 1150 CE, population rose again in the period defined as Cantona III (600 – 900 CE), reaching an estimated peak of 90,000 at 700 CE.”* The researchers suggest a possible explanation for this might lie in theories proposed by archaeologists regarding migration of peoples from the north due to increasing aridity, among other factors. “This time period was likely one of turmoil elsewhere in highland Mexico,” they continue, “as a result of Teotihuacan’s earlier decline, the decline of Cholula between 650 CE and 850 CE, and eruptions of the volcano Popcatepetl. It is possible that this turmoil may have created a flux of migrants to other rising centers of regional power.”* The researchers noted that the great decline and final abandonment between 900 and 1050 CE was also marked by increased defensive construction works, coinciding with the most intense aridity in the record.

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View of the remains of Cantona. AnheruAn, Wikimedia Commons

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Platform mound construction at Cantona. Aleksms, Wikimedia Commons

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The authors conclude that the study results may suggest a complex interplay between climate conditions and the political and societal conditions of Cantona and other city-states and settlements in Mesoamerica.

The detailed study* is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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*Article #14-05653: “Cultural implications of late Holocene climate change in the Cuenca Oriental, Mexico,” by Tripti Bhattacharya et al.

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Archaeologists Excavate Pre-Roman Burials in Spain

Posted on January 24, 2015 by No Author -

Pintia, Spain—At an archaeological site in north central Spain, an archaeological team has been uncovering prolific finds that testify to a civilization that occupied a region of Spain long before the Romans arrived and conquered. The archaeological area measures about 125 hectares and contains the remains of human occupation spanning more than 1,000 years. Recently, archaeologists have recovered numerous artifacts from 2,500-year-old burials, particularly cremation tombs, that have provided a window on the Vaccean culture, an Iron Age people who lived and thrived in the area for several centuries BC, before the arrival of the Romans.

“It was dominated by three cultures: Vaccean, Roman and Visigoth, although the pre-Roman people, during the final four centuries BC, were the most important for the area,” state Carlos Sanz and colleagues. Sanz is the site director and Professor of Archaeology at the University of Valladolid. “Although most of the archaeological remains are below ground,” he and his colleagues continue, “in the past few years the archaeological team has been excavating and restoring the site to shine light on this distant people.”*

Over the past decade the team has excavated at least 150 cremation tombs containing a variety of grave goods: funerary jars, daggers, necklaces, children’s toys, knives, tongs, iron grills, broaches, and spear points, among other types of artifacts. From these finds and other discoveries in the area, Sanz and his colleagues are slowly developing a knowledge base about the ancient Vaccean culture in the area—a people who believed in an afterlife and lived in a hierarchical society ruled by a small military elite. The overall study site features several different areas of study, including a residential settlement called Las Quintanas, its necropolis called Las Ruedas, the ustrinum or crematorium called Los Cenizales, a possible sanctuary between Los Hoyos and Las Ruedas, and an artisan neighborhood in Pesquera called Carralaceña, which has its own residential area, necropolis and pottery-making facilities. Referring to Las Quintanas, Sanz, et al., state that the “excavation and aerial photography have revealed a well-developed layout with a system of primary and secondary roads. Houses were built of adobe, wood, and mud walls, with straw roofs and floors of compressed earth.”*

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The cremation grave shown above was one of the richest Vaccean burials found at Pintia’s necropolis, Las Ruedas. It contained a large number of perfume bottles, among other things. Photograph taken during the June 2008 field school session. Wikimedia Commons

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Pintia first came to light in 1870, when local farmers came across bones and artifacts, bringing the discovery to the attention of local authorities. But the most recent organized research in the area didn’t begin until 1979 under the auspices of the University of Valladolid, with a hiatus of two decades and then resumption in recent years with a focus on the Vaccean necropolis.

Sanz and his team will be returning to the site in June and July of 2015. Individuals interested in learning more about the excavations and the Vacceans and how to participate may find more information at the project website.

The excavation field school at the site is carried out through a partnership between the University of Valladolid and ArchaeoSpain.

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*http://archaeospain.com/programs/necropolis-of-celtic-iron-age-pintia/

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Scientists Discover Evidence of Earliest Known Human-Like Hands

Posted on January 22, 2015 by No Author -

Researchers have come across ancient anatomical evidence that suggests that Australopithecus africanus, a hominin species thought to be an ancestor of humans, sported hands capable of making and using stone tools, a capability until now reserved only for the later hominins.

The discovery pushes back the clock of possible tool use to as much as about 3 million years ago, possibly pre-dating the earliest known archaeological record of stone tools, which is dated to about 2.6 million years ago.

Led by Matthew Skinner and T.L. Kivell of the UK’s University of Kent, along with researchers from University College London, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig (Germany) and the Vienna University of Technology (Austria), the study involved examining the internal spongey bone structure of Australopithecus hand fossils from the Pliocene Epoch, fossils dated to 5.3 to 2.6 million years ago. Trabecular bone is important in this case because it typically changes its structure through the lifetime of an individual, depending upon the individual’s lifestyle or behavior.

The researchers first examined and compared the trabeculae of the hands of humans and chimpanzees. They observed distinct differences between modern humans, including other more ancient human species such as Neanderthals, who have a unique ability for precision gripping between thumb and fingers, critical for tool-making and use, and chimpanzees, who do not have the same ability.

“We initiated the study when we realized that by using microCT scanning we could image the internal structure of bones to reveal how they were loaded during particular behaviours,” said Skinner. “Once we had evidence for the characteristic human forceful precision grip in human hands compared to chimpanzees, we decided to see whether this signal was present in a pre-Homo species such as Australopithecus africanus.”

Their analysis was eye-opening—they observed that the pattern of trabeculae within the Australopithecine samples suggested the same precision grip ability—a key feature usually considered unique to humans.

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An example of a human precision grip, grasping an Australopithecus africanus first metacarpal (StW 418) of the thumb (3-2 million years old). Credit: T.L. Kivell & M. Skinner

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Top row: First metacarpals of the thumb in (from left to right) a chimpanzee, fossil hominins Australopithecus africanus (StW 418) and two specimens belonging to either a robust australopith or early Homo (SKX 5020 and SK 84), and a human. The bottom row shows 3D renderings from the microCT scans of the same specimens, showing a cross-section of the trabecular structure inside. Ma, million years ago. Credit: T.L. Kivell

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Until now, the first stone tool making had generally been associated with an early human called Homo habilis, a species of humans thought by many scholars to be directly ancestral to humans and whose remains have been accompanied by simple stone tools classified into a primitive technology called the Oldowan, the first stone tools. The first fossil remains of this species was discovered by Mary and Louis Leakey in 1960 at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.

Now, however, Skinner, et al.’s findings suggest the possibility that an older “less human” hominin species, Australopithecus africanus, had the anatomical capability of producing such simple stone tools. The results support previously published archaeological evidence for possible stone tool use in australopiths and provide skeletal evidence that our early ancestors used human-like hand postures much earlier and more frequently than previously considered.

Australopithecus africanus is an early hominid, or australopithecine, that lived as much as 3 million years ago and whose fossil remains have been found in several South African sites. Raymond Dart first named or identified the species in 1924 when the well-preserved skull of a child specimen was uncovered in a lime mine at Taung near Kimberley, South Africa.

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Skull and endocast of the famous Taung child australopithecus specimen. Courtesy Didier Discouens, Wikimedia Commons

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Details of the study* have been published in the journal Science, a publication of the non-profit scientific organization, the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

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*”Human-like hand use in Australopithecus africanus,” by M.M. Skinner; T.L. Kivell at University of Kent in Canterbury, UK; M.M. Skinner; A.C. Foote at University College London in London, UK; M.M. Skinner; N.B. Stephens; Z.J. Tsegai; N.H. Nguyen; J.-J. Hublin; T.L. Kivell at Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany; M.M. Skinner; T.L. Kivell at University of the Witwatersrand in Wits, South Africa; T. Gross; D.H. Pahr at Vienna University of Technology in Vienna, Austria.

Some content for this article was adapted and edited from the University of Kent press release, Early human ancestors used their hands like modern humans.

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Archaeologists Investigate Ancient Greek Temenos on Black Sea Island

Posted on January 19, 2015 by No Author -

Sozopol, Bulgaria—A team of archaeologists are discovering new finds on a tiny island just off the Black Sea coast near Sozopol, Bulgaria—finds that may shed additional light on the location and features of a lost temple to Apollo erected by Archaic Greeks in the late 6^th century BCE.

Epigraphic sources document that a temple to Apollo was raised on an island near the ancient Greek colony of Apollonia Pontica, which is located near present-day Sozopol. But there has been no evidence to suggest where the temple was actually located—until recently, when an archaeological team under the direction of Kristina Panayotova of the National Institute of Archaeology and Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, unearthed a fragment of East Greek pottery with an inscription dedication to Apollo.

The ancient temple was famous for another reason: It was here, in front of the temple, where a colossal 13-meter high bronze statue of Apollo was raised and dedicated to the Apollo letros (the Healer), the patron deity of Apollonia Pontica.

“In 72 BCE the Romans under Marcus Lucullus sacked the city and the colossal sculpture was taken to Rome as a trophy,” state Panatoyova and colleagues in a summery of their excavations project on the island. “It was exhibited for several centuries on the Capitoline Hill.”* It has been lost to the world since the advent of the Christian era, as has the exact location of the temple.

Panayotova’s teams have been conducting excavations at the site since 2009, and have thus far uncovered evidence of Greek settlement here going back as far as the 7^th century BCE and a late 6^th-early 5^th century BCE Archaic Greek temple complex which may be the lost temple of Apollo. Other finds included remains of a temple from the 4^th century BCE Hellenistic period; an ancient Greek tholos; an ancient Greek copper foundry; an early Byzantine basilica and necropolis; two ritual pits from the Archaic period containing numerous artifacts; several early Christian 5^th century CE graves; structures dated to the Archaic period; and many other finds.

Apollonia Pontica is considered among the earliest urban Greek settlements on the Western Black Sea coast. The city acquired its name in honor of its patron deity, Apollo, and was founded by the philosopher Anaximander and Miletian colonists around 610 BC., becoming an important center of trade between ancient Greece and Thrace. Strong, prosperous and independent for centuries, it was finally conquered by the Roman legions under Marcus Lucullus in 72 BCE. The city thereafter became known as Apollonia Magna, or Great Apollonia. Its name was changed to Sozopol during the Christian period in the 4^th century CE.

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Found at Apollonia Pontica, terracotta plaque frieze fragment artifact shows two hoplites. Marie Lan-Nguyen, Wikimedia Commons

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Found at Apollonia Pontica, a lot of 4 Greek silver coins. Wikimedia Commons

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Panayotova and colleagues plan to return to continue excavations at the site in 2015, and will be operating a field school for students and volunteers. “The Field School Season 2015 envisions excavations at the top of the island, in the area of the Archaic and Classical Greek and Hellenistic temples, Ancient Greek copper foundry and the Early Christian basilica and necropolis, where the excavations from 2012 take place,” state Panayotova and colleagues.*

More information about Apollonia Pontica and the field school can be obtained at the project website.

See the earlier news article published by Popular Archaeology in 2013.

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*http://www.bhfieldschool.org/project/APexc

Cover Image: Harbor at Apollonia Pontica, courtesy Apollonia Pontica Excavation Project, Balkan Heritage Field School.

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ArchaeoSpain Calls for Participants in Mallorca Excavation of a Byzantine Settlement

Posted on January 16, 2015 by No Author -

On the Mediterranean island of Mallorca in Spain lie the remains of a Byzantine settlement, known as Son Peretó, where archaeological excavations are underway. Inhabited from the 5^th century CE to about the 7^th century CE, Son Peretó was home to a Christian population and is perhaps the most significant Byzantine settlement in the islands. What makes the site so interesting to archaeologists is its importance as an example of early Christian architecture. The site features a baptistery and a basilica, and a number of human remains in noteworthy condition have been revealed.

“The current project,” write the Son Peretó project staff, “managed by the Manacor Historical Museum and the University of Barcelona, began in 2005, and since then our goal has been to preserve and restore the ruins uncovered during the 20th-century excavations, especially the foundations of several walls and untouched graves. So far the graves uncovered have been found in excellent condition.”*

The dig has been a continuous effort, and every summer Son Peretó yields new discoveries. The leaders of the excavation are calling for dig participants who will help the archaeologists acquire a higher understanding of the baptistery and the basilica. “This coming year we will focus on the excavation and restoration of the rooms next to the baptistery’s apse, and there is a good chance we’ll also be digging inside the church (known as the basilica),” state project director Magdalena Sala Buguera and colleagues.*

There are five spots still available. Spanish or Catalonian will not be prerequisites for participation but there will be an immersion in the local language and an opportunity to learn. After the day’s work, there will be time to relax by the Mediterranean in a café. The group will also have the opportunity to visit other archaeological sites of Roman, Moorish, Talaiotic, and Medieval influence. A boat trip to the island of Cabrera, one of the most beautiful sites in the Mediterranean, is a highlight of the program.

The site is a 20-minute drive from lodging at Port Nou, where the group will sleep in a four bedroom accommodation by the sea, complete with a kitchen, bathroom, laundry, and a well for fresh water.

More information can be found at this website.

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* http://archaeospain.com/programs/byzantine-church-of-son-pereto/

Cover photo credit ArchaeoSpain.

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Expedition to Idalion, Cyprus, Explores Ancient Sanctuaries

Posted on January 14, 2015 by No Author -

An archaeological team is investigating three key sites at the location of ancient Idalion in Cyprus, where excavations are continuing to uncover new features and finds dating as far back as the Bronze Age in an ancient city that was the most important of ten city kingdoms on Cyprus during the 6^th and 7^th centuries BCE.

At the first site, which defines the remains of the Hellenistic period Sanctuary of Adonis, archaeologists uncovered evidence of 11^th century BCE occupation. The discoveries were made as a part of their investigation of earlier phases of habitation at the site. The finds have pointed to possible influence or connection with cultures and belief systems in the Levant, especially during the 1^st millennium BCE.

“There are multiple indicators that the cult of Adonis at Idalion was closely related to the first millennium BCE religion of ancient Israel,” wrote Dr. Pamela Gaber and colleagues in a summary of the recent excavations.* Gaber is Project Director of the excavations, currently with Lycoming College, Williamsport, Pennsylvania. She and her teams have been excavating at Idalion since 1987.

The second site, known as the “Sanctuary of the Paired Deities”, has also been identified as a religious center. Gaber and colleagues have been excavating there since 2002, uncovering stone altars and ash pits and a pair of standing stones and limestone figures. “During the 2012 season we took out the standing stones and found the remains of a pair of standing wooden columns, apparently destroyed during the conquest of Idalion [by the Kitians] around 450 BCE,” stated Gaber, et al., in their summary.*

In 2015 Gaber plans to continue investigating this sanctuary, along with the Sanctuary of Adonis, hoping to gain a clearer picture of its meaning, significance, and use.

The third site is thought to be a possible industrial installation, as in 2013 they uncovered evidence pointing to an early dyeing industry that continued on into the Hellenistic period.

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Limestone statue of male figure recovered from Idalion during a past exploration of the site. Wikimedia Commons

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Bronze plaque engraved on both faces with a Cyprian inscription, found at Idalion. It is a decree from Stasicypros, the king of Idalion, to compensate a public physician, Onesilos, and his brothers: the king and the city will pay them medical fees for the treatment of the wounded after the siege of Idalion by the Medes (478 and 470 BC). Wikimedia Commons

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The ancient remains of Idalion in central Cyprus have seen on-and-off archaeological excavations since the early 20^th century, but the most significant excavations took place under Einar Gjerstad from 1927 to 1931, from which eight volumes of scholarly reporting were published. Gjerstad was followed by Lawrence Stager and Anita Walker of the Joint American Expedition to Idalion from 1971 to 1980, which produced two volumes. Gaber’s expedition has continued investigations, clarifying and adding to the work done previously and opening up new investigations with new questions about Idalion and life in Cyprus in the centuries BCE.

Idalion is best known historically as a major center of copper trade beginning in the 3^rd millennium BCE. It was one of 11 cities in Cyprus listed on the Stele of Sargon (707 BCE) and considered the most important of the ten Cypriot kingdoms listed on the tablet of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE).

More information about Idalion, the excavations and how one can participate can be found at the project website.

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*http://www.lycoming.edu/archaeology/digs/goals.aspx

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Earliest Known Stone Tools Planted the Seeds of Communication and Language

Posted on January 13, 2015 by No Author -

University of California, Berkeley—Two and a half million years ago, our hominin ancestors in the African savanna crafted rocks into shards that could slice apart a dead gazelle, zebra or other game animal. Over the next 700,000 years, this butchering technology spread throughout the continent and, it turns out, came to be a major evolutionary force, according to new research from the University of California, Berkeley, the University of Liverpool and the University of St. Andrews, both in the UK. Combining the tools of psychology, evolutionary biology and archaeology, scientists have found compelling evidence for the co-evolution of early Stone Age slaughtering tools and our ability to communicate and teach, shedding new light on the power of human culture to shape evolution.

To be reported Jan. 13 in the journal Nature Communications, the study is the largest to date to look at gene-culture co-evolution in the context of prehistoric Oldowan tools, the oldest-known cutting devices. It suggests communication among our earliest ancestors may be more complex than previously thought, with teaching and perhaps even a primitive proto-language occurring some 1.8 million years ago.

“Our findings suggest that stone tools weren’t just a product of human evolution, but actually drove it as well, creating the evolutionary advantage necessary for the development of modern human communication and teaching,” said Thomas Morgan, lead author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher in psychology at UC Berkeley.

“Our data show this process was ongoing two and a half million years ago, which allows us to consider a very drawn-out and gradual evolution of the modern human capacity for language and suggests simple ‘proto-languages’ might be older than we previously thought,” Morgan added.

Morgan and University of Liverpool archaeologist Natalie Uomini arrived at their conclusions by conducting a series of experiments in teaching contemporary humans the art of “Oldowan stone-knapping,” in which butchering “flakes” are created by hammering a hard rock against certain volcanic or glassy rocks, like basalt or flint.

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A typical Oldowan simple stone chopper tool. Wikimedia Commons

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Oldowan stone-knapping dates back to the Lower Paleolithic period in eastern Africa, and remained largely unchanged for 700,000 years until more sophisticated Acheulean hand-axes and cleavers, which marked the next generation of stone tool technology, came on the scene. It was practiced by some of our earliest ancestors, such as Homo habilis and the even older Australopithecus garhi, who walked on two legs, but whose facial features and brain size were closer to those of apes.

In testing five different ways to convey Oldowan stone-knapping skills to more than 180 college students, the researchers found that the demonstration that used spoken communication – versus imitation, non-verbal presentations or gestures – yielded the highest volume and quality of flakes in the least amount of time and with the least waste.

To measure the rate of transmission of the ancient butchery technology, and establish whether more complex communication such as language would get the best results, study volunteers were divided into five- or 10-member “learning chains.” The head of the chain received a knapping demonstration, the raw materials and five minutes to try their hand at it. That person then showed it to the next person in the chain, who in turn showed the next person, and so on. Their competence picked up significantly with verbal instruction.

“If someone is trying to learn a skill that has lots of subtlety to it, it helps to engage with a teacher and have them correct you,” Morgan said. “You learn so much faster when someone is telling you what to do.”

As for what the results mean for the Oldowan hominins: “They were probably not talking,” Morgan said. “These tools are the only tools they made for 700,000 years. So if people had language, they would have learned faster and developed newer technologies more rapidly.”

Without language, one can assume that a hominin version of, say, Steve Jobs would have been hard-pressed to pass on visionary ideas. Still, the seeds of language, teaching and learning were planted due to the demand for Oldowan tools, the study suggests, and at some point hominins got better at communicating, hence the advent of Acheulean hand-axes and cleavers some 1.7 million years ago.

“To sustain Acheulean technology, there must have been some kind of teaching, and maybe even a kind of language, going on, even just a simple proto-language using sounds or gestures for ‘yes’ or ‘no,’ or ‘here’ or ‘there,'” Morgan said.

Indeed, the data suggest that when the Oldowan stone-tool industry started, it was most likely not being taught, but communication methods to teach it were developed later.

“At some point they reached a threshold level of communication that allowed Acheulean hand axes to start being taught and spread around successfully and that almost certainly involved some sort of teaching and proto-type language,” Morgan said.

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In addition to Morgan and Uomini, co-authors and researchers on the paper are Luke E. Rendell, Sally E. Street, Hannah M. Lewis, Catherine P. Cross, Cara Evans, Ronan Kearney, Andrew Whiten and Kevin N. Laland, all at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, Ignacio de la Torre at University College London and Laura Chouinard-Thuly at McGill University in Canada.

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Source: Adapted and edited from a University of California Berkeley Press Release

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Archaeologists Uncover Possible Royal Escape Tunnel at Biblical Site

Posted on January 10, 2015 by No Author -

A team of archaeologists excavating at the ancient site best known as Bethsaida not far from the northeastern shore of the Sea of Galilee have encountered what they suggest may be what is left of an escape tunnel that was used by the city’s royal elite during the times of ancient Israel and Judah.

Though it is still very early in the investigation process, one entrance of the tunnel has been located, and collapsed structural debris and ground penetrating radar images have indicated possible evidence of the suspected tunnel area extending from an ancient palace structure out to an outer city wall. Similar features have been found at other ancient sites, and the biblical account, for example, documents such an escape route used by King Zedekiah and others when Jerusalem was being besieged by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar.

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The entrance to the tunnel as uncovered during recent excavation. Video screenshot (see video below).

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Overhead view of location of tunnel, indicated by red arrow, showing its trajectory from the palace remains to the outer wall of the Iron Age city. Video screenshot (see video below).

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GPR diagram showing underground anomally or pattern that indicates the possible location of the tunnel. Video screenshot (see video below).

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The site, which was identified as the likely location of the city of Bethsaida by Dr. Rami Arav of the University of Nebraska, Omaha, in 1987, has been the focus of extensive excavations under Arav’s directorship since 1990. It has yielded structural and artifact remains of two cities: Bethsaida, a town that, according to the biblical account, was visited by Jesus in the 1^st century CE and was the hometown of several of his apostles; and a much older city whose remains lie beneath it, thought to be the likely capital city of the 9^{th –}10^th century BCE (Iron Age) kingdom of Geshur, an ally of the Kingdom of Israel as mentioned in the Bible. Extensive finds have been uncovered from the site representing both time periods and cultures, with some of the most ‘sensational’ findings coming from the Iron Age period city, where archaeologists have uncovered one of the largest and most complete city gate complexes in the Levant, in addition to a palace and massive defensive works with an inner and outer city wall. The suspected tunnel is thought to be associated with the Iron Age (Geshurite) period city. But excavations of the remains of the later city, that of Bethsaida, have yielded numerous finds confirming the site’s occupation during the time of Jesus and his disciples and after their deaths, such as a Roman temple and associated artifacts dated to the early 1^st century CE, other structures, fishing and cooking implements, and coins. Most recently, in 2014, a rare Judaea capta coin was discovered, a coin minted by Emperor Domitian between 81 and 96 CE to commemorate the conquest of Judaea and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE by emperors Vespasian and Titus.

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View of the famous city gate complex, from outside plaza area looking toward sacred entrance “high place” flanked by stela (ancient carved standing stones erected for religious or special purposes). Courtesy Virtual World Project and Nicolae Roddy.

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Although the remains are now located approximately 1.5 – 2 km from the lake’s northeastern shore and just east of the Jordan river, scholars still maintain that it was a place with a fishing economy, a key identifier as the location of the Bethsaida of Jesus’ time. Geological studies have shown that the lake was actually significantly closer to the site 2,000 years ago. Tectonic rifting, sedimentation of the Jordan Delta, and greater usage of the lake water over time through land irrigation and increased population are all cited as possible explanations for the difference.

Archaeologists plan to return to the site with their teams during the summer of 2015, when they will continue their exploration and excavation related to the possible tunnel as well as other areas of the site. More information about the Bethsaida Excavations Project and how one can participate can be found at the project website.

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Archaeologists Recover Artifacts Under Museum Construction Site in Philadelphia

Posted on January 7, 2015 by No Author -

Slated for completion and opening in 2017, construction has already begun at the site of the planned Museum of the American Revolution in Philadelphia. But before work could begin, a team of archaeologists and other experts got busy systematically excavating and recording everything they could find beneath the surface where the museum will stand before construction work effectively wipes out what material history remains preserved below it.

Historic structural remains and tens of thousands of artifacts were uncovered before the task was finally finished on October 24^th, 2014 until the Spring of 2015, when further archaeological work will begin in a different location beneath the site. In all, they excavated a well and twelve brick-lined privies yielding a motherlode of finds.

“One of the largest assemblages of artifacts came from an 18^th-century privy in the southeast corner of the site,” wrote lead archaeologist Rebecca Yamin of John Milner Associates in her account of the excavations in the museum project’s Making the Museum blog.*

Among the assemblage finds was an intriguing English delftware punch bowl that featured an artfully rendered ship displaying British flags, including the words “Success to the Triphena” painted below the image. “We were the first people to lay eyes on the object since it was broken and discarded around the time of the American Revolution,” stated Yamin. It took a little historical research to uncover the significance of the find. “Thanks to the digitization of 18^th-century American and British newspapers,” wrote Yamin, “we have been able to piece together some fascinating details about the original Triphena. The December 1, 1763 edition of the Pennsylvania Gazette carried an advertisement for merchant Robert Lewis and Son, located on Front Street in Philadelphia, where they offered an assortment of goods just imported on the “Triphena, Captain Smith, from Liverpool.” The Triphena played an important role in the American colonists’ opposition to the Stamp Act. In 1765, Captain Smith carried a memorial from the merchants of Philadelphia to the merchants of Great Britain, requesting that they influence Parliament to repeal the Act. “Like many of the items discovered on our site,” states Yamin in the blog, “the “Success to the Triphena” bowl is not simply an object—it is also a witness to and product of the rich and fascinating history of our corner of the world as a new nation was being formed.”*

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New architectural rendering of the Museum of the American Revolution as it will appear in Philadelphia. Courtesy Museum of the American Revolution

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Other 17^th to 19^th century finds included foundations of structures, numerous fragments of ceramic ware, buttons, pipe stems, lead shot, gun flints, shells, glassware, and even cattle horns and bones and the sole of a leather shoe, to name only a few examples. With these finds, the archaeologists and historians hope to be able to reconstruct a more detailed picture of life in this section of Philadelphia, known historically as Carter’s Alley, combining the archaeological finds and analysis with historical/documents research. “So far, from deeds we have learned that the block was occupied by many different kinds of artisans. For instance, in the 1790s there was a shoemaker, a bookbinder, a printer, a carpenter, a paper manufacturer, a blacksmith, a stay maker, a tallow chandler, a coachmaker, a cutler, and a cordwainer on Carter’s Alley,” states Yamin. “Once the artifacts are mended we will match them to their probable owners and address research questions that relate to domestic life in early Philadelphia and industrial activities that co-existed with private houses in this neighborhood. The site includes a material record of the development of the city in microcosm and we will trace the changes over time from the late 17th century up to the second decade of the 20th century.”*

The Museum of the American Revolution, with plans to open to the public in 2017, will tell the story of the American Revolution through artifacts, audio-visual presentations, and interactive exhibits, and will include accounts of colonial life and events during this critically pivotal period in U.S. history. More information about the museum and progress on its development can be obtained at the museum website. Information about the archaeology at the site can be found at the Making the Museum website blog.

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*http://amrevmuseum.tumblr.com/

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Prehistoric Easter Islanders Didn’t Experience a Simple Collapse, Say Researchers

Posted on January 5, 2015 by No Author -

Scientists may be coming a little closer to the truth about what happened to the prehistoric inhabitants of Easter Island, the island in the southeastern Pacific far off the coast of Chile where, some scholars have theorized, an entire civilization (the Rapa Nui) collapsed due to runaway population growth, land mismanagement, the Polynesian rat, or warfare, or some combination of the three. Alternatively, some scholars have pointed to the possibility of population decimation due to smallpox, syphilis, and tuberculosis introduced by new European arrivals in the 18th century.

But Christopher Stevenson of the Virginia Commonwealth University and colleagues have concluded that the picture of what happened may actually be more complex and subtle, suggesting that “the concept of “collapse” is a misleading characterization of prehistoric population dynamics” on the island.*

Stevenson and colleagues analyzed hydrated obsidian tool and flake artifacts sampled from sites in separate regional areas and reconstructed a timeline that reflected regional land use and conditions within the context of rainfall variation and soil quality within the Rapa Nui habitation zones. “We evaluated region-specific land-use patterns in six study areas on Rapa Nui, focusing on three for which we have information on climate, soils, and land-use trends derived from numerous obsidian hydration dates,” wrote Stevenson, et al.*

Overall, the results indicated pre-European contact population and productivity declines in some near-coastal and upland areas, and post-contact increases and declines in other areas. The results, according to the study authors, “argues against the notion of an island-wide pre-contact collapse as a useful explanatory concept for Rap Nui— although it does support the reality of a pre-contact decline in land use that probably was associated with declines in food production.”*

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The mysterious, iconic and massive maoi statues erected by the prehistoric Rapa Nui on Easter Island. Gallor Doval, Wikimedia Commons.

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A Rapa Nui Rock Garden, or agricultural field, with Poike volcano in the background. Image courtesy of Christopher M. Stevenson.

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The Rapa Nui are a Polynesian people who currently make up about 60% of Easter Island’s current population. Their prehistoric ancestors are thought to have inhabited Easter Island between 300 and 1200 CE. Many scholars suggest that the Rapa Nui had early contact with South America by 1200 – 1300 CE based on the presence of the sweet potato and bottle gourd plants on the island. Jacob Roggeveen, an early 18^th century Dutch explorer, was the first European to contact the Rapa Nui when he arrived on the island on April 5, 1722.

The study is published in detail in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

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* Article #14-20712: “Variation in Rapa Nui (Easter Island) land use indicates production and population peaks prior to European contact,” by Christopher M. Stevenson et al.

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Smithsonian Galleries Launch First Complete Digitized Collection for Public View

Posted on January 1, 2015 by No Author -

Effective January 1, 2014, the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, both a part of the massive Smithsonian museum complex in Washington, D.C., have released their entire collections of art and artifacts for online viewing. The release provides “unprecedented access to one of the world’s most important holdings of Asian and American art,” announced gallery officials in a press release. “The free public resource—called “Open F|S”—will launch at open.asia.si.edu, allowing anyone to explore and create with the collections, from anywhere in the world.”

Most of these objects have never been seen by the public, with over 90 percent of them available in high-resolution format and without copyright restrictions, as long as they are used for non-commercial purposes, say museum officials.

This makes the Freer and Sackler galleries the first and only Asian art museums to digitize and release their entire collections to the public, joining only a few museums in the U.S. that have done similarly with other types of collections. “The public is encouraged to use the images for educational, scholarly, artistic and personal projects that will not be marketed, promoted or sold,” say museum oficials. “Enthusiasts are encouraged to provide feedback for “Open F|S” by signing up to become a beta tester for the Freer|Sackler. Beta testers who sign up will receive exclusive hackathon invitations and closed test versions of future “Open F|S” iterations.”

See examples of items available in the digital collections database below.

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Jade (nephrite) ceremonial Tube (Cong) with masks. Late Neolithic period object dated to ca. 3300 – ca. 2250 BCE, Liangzhu Culture, China. Gift of Charles Lang Freer. Courtesy Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery.

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Earthenware ceramic tripod ewer vessel of the Dawenkou culture from Shandong Province, China (ca. 4300 – ca. 2400 BCE). The Dr. Paul Singer Collection of Chinese Art of the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution; a joint gift of the Arthur M. Sackler Foundation, Paul Singer, the AMS Foundation for the Arts, Sciences, and Humanities, and the Children of Arthur M. Courtesy Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery.

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Looking beyond this initial release, officials say that the “Open F|S” initiative will offer additional functions such as sharing, curation and community-based research, and some of the images will even be available to the public for download as free mobile backgrounds, desktop wallpapers and social media headers.

Beginning January 2, the galleries will share rarely seen curator favorites from their digital collection in a new “Friday Fave” weekly series posting on Bento, the Smithsonian museum blog.

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Source: Adapted and edited from information provided by a Freer/Sackler Gallery press release.

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Archaeologists Investigate Early Urban Center Near Sea of Galilee

Posted on December 29, 2014 by No Author -

Situated near the southern coast of the Sea of Galilee in the present-day State of Israel, the ancient remains of one of the earliest urban centers of the Levant has been explored off-and-on by teams of archaeologists for more than 70 years. Known as Tel bet Yerah, or Khirbet Kerak, it was built around 3,000 BCE as a fortified city, and archaeologists have discovered evidence indicating the center had significant political and commercial importance to the First Dynasty kings of ancient Egypt. In 2009, a team of archaeologists under the direction of Dr. Raphael Greenberg of Tel Aviv University, Dr. Sarit Paz of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Prof. David Wengrow of the University College London, uncovered an Egyptian relief-carved stone fragment illustrating a hand grasping a scepter and the ‘ankh’ (eternal life) symbol, which they dated to about 3000 BCE. It was one clear sign, among other finds, that testified of a trade and political relationship between the city and First Dynasty Egypt.

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View of the excavation site at Tel bet Yerah. Hanay, Wikimedia Commons

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Greenberg and colleagues have been excavating at the site to address unanswered questions about the history and culture of the site, the location of an ancient city that is shedding additional light on the development of urbanization in this part of the Levant, an area that has functioned historically as a crossroads between the great urban centers of Mesopotamia and Egypt to the south.

But unlike many other similar sites in the region, Tel bet Yerah features finds that also tell of the distinctive presence of a migrant group from an area far to its north.

“Occupied throughout the Early Bronze Age (3,500 – 2,300 BCE) and sporadically in later times, Bet Yerah was a large, fortified city – one of the first in its region – at about 3,000 BCE, with evidence for diplomatic contacts with the First Dynasty of Egypt,” write Greenberg and colleagues in their summary of the site. But “about two centuries later, it was home to mobile migrant communities who arrived at the site from the distant north.”*

Who were these migrants? Greenberg and colleagues hope to find more answers.

But evidence from past excavation has already provided some clues. “These were the creators of ‘Khirbet Kerak Ware’,” continue Greenberg, et al., “ a unique ceramic product first discovered at Bet Yerah that forms part of a culture whose roots lie in the South Caucasus,” based on similar archaeological finds in Eastern Anatolia and the southern Caucasus. “It has no political or cultural core,” write Greenberg, et al. of the culture in a 2012 report . “It seems to have reproduced itself by way of the migration of small groups of people through varied landscapes. In each region they adapted themselves to local conditions, yet continued to maintain a distinct communal identity expressed in their ceramics and, often, in their way of using domestic space.”**

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The distinctive ‘Khirbet Kerak’ pottery. Hanay, Wikimedia Commons

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The archaeological team will be returning to the site in 2015 to continue their excavations. “In 2015 we will delve down into the deepest levels of the mound, in order to gain a better understanding of the creation of local cultural traditions at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age (3500 – 3100 BCE).”* The team also hopes to further excavate an area that contains remains of the migrant community (the ‘Khirbet Kerak people’), with the goal of understanding how they maintained their separate identity at this location and uncovering more evidence that “will point to their precise place of origin.”*

Arrangements for the excavations in 2015 are currently coordinated by the Institute for Field Research and individuals who are interested in finding out more about Tel bet Yerah and how to participate can obtain detailed information at the IFR website for the project.

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*http://ifrglobal.org/images/2015/Syllabus/Syllabus-IsraelTBY2015-Final.pdf

** Raphael Greenberg, Sarit Paz, David Wengrow, and Mark Iserlis, Tel bet Yerah: Hub of the Early Bronze Age Levant, Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 75, No. 2 (June 2012), pp. 88 – 107.

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Archaeologists Investigate Early Modern Human Adaptability in South African Rock Shelters

Posted on December 27, 2014 by No Author -

A number of rock shelters and caves in South Africa have long been known to contain remarkable evidence for the cognitive abilities of some of our earliest modern human ancestors. Rock shelters and caves such as Blombos, Sibudu, Diepkloof, Spitzkloof, and Sehonghong have yielded stone tools, rock art and other evidence of an active human presence during the Middle Stone Age (280,000 – 50,000 years ago)—humans that, with the mounting evidence, seem to be more and more like us in terms of their thinking and creative abilities.

Recently, scientists have been exploring new evidence indicating an enduring capability of early modern humans to adapt to the challenging mountainous environment in the Sehonghong rock shelter. At this site, located in the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho, excavations under the direction of Brian Stewart of the University of Michigan and Dr. Genevieve Dewar of the University of Toronto Scarborough under the AMEMSA project (Adaptations to Marginal Environments in the Middle Stone Age) have uncovered a rich array of cultural and organic remains that testify to human activity. Found within a stratigraphic sequence that dates back as much as 60,000 years, the scientists have unearthed the traces of ancient fireplaces, living structures, animal bones remaining from human meat consumption, and stone tools.

“The landscape is rugged and remote,” write Stewart and colleagues in their summary of the area, “a vertical topography where dramatic river valleys slice deeply through southern Africa’s very highest peaks. For tens of thousands of years people used this broken landscape in diverse ways, from a year-round home to seasonal hunting and fishing grounds. The mountains were at different times no doubt a help and a hindrance, offering hiding places to ambush game, for example, or avoided altogether when the climate turned especially cold and dry.”*

Preliminary excavations at the site only began in 2011, but the evidence found thus far has been rich. Stewart, Dewar and colleagues plan to return to the site in 2015 to continue excavations, and to conduct surveys in the area surrounding the rock shelter.

The southern African region has been the focus in recent years of numerous surveys, excavations and research related to the emergence of early modern human behavior. The study of their environment and available resources and how these human ancestors dealt with change and the realities of their surroundings has been an important focus for understanding prehistoric human adaptability, a key to the success of Homo sapiens (modern humans) to the exclusion of all other now-extinct human species.

Along with Sehonghong, Stewart and colleagues have also been investigating the site of Spitzkloof as part of their research related to early modern human adaptability to challenging environments. Spitzkloof is a remote site consisting of three adjacent rockshelters in Namaqualand, a coastal desert area in northwest South Africa. For 2,000 years the region surrounding the caves was home to pastoralists, but it was also home to hunter-gatherer groups for at least 60,000 years who survived and perhaps even thrived in this relatively harsh, arid marginal environment.

More information about the excavations at the Sehonghong rock shelter site and how one can participate can be found at the Institute for Field Research website. The Institute for Field Research (IFR) is coordinating fieldwork arrangements for project participation.

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*http://ifrglobal.org/images/2015/Syllabus/Syllabus-Lesotho_Sehonghong_2015_v2.pdf

Cover Photo, Top Left: A photo image of Spitzkloof rockshelters A through C, another similar Middle Stone Age (MSA) site being investigated by Stewart and Dewar: Courtesy Genevieve Dewar, 2010, from the article, Archaeologists Explore Early Modern Human Adaptability in South Africa, Popular Archaeology Magazine, April 18, 2013.

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The Most Compelling Archaeological Discovery in Russia for 2014

Posted on December 23, 2014 by No Author -

Moscow, December 23, 2014 – The Volnoe Delo Oleg Deripaska Foundation, one of the largest private charities in Russia, announces that an ancient bronze naval ram found in a submerged section of ancient Phanagoria, which was at one time the largest Greek colony on the Taman peninsula near the Black Sea in present-day southern Russia, was named the year’s most compelling discovery in Russia by Science and Life magazines.

The bronze ram was found by archaeologists among the remains of the ancient city of Phanagoria during the 10^th archaeological season in 2014. The ram was once part of a bireme, an ancient oared warship with two decks of oars. The warship served the army of Mithradates VI, the king of Pontus from 119 to 63 BC. Mithradates VI was considered the most powerful king in Anatolia during the 1^st century BC. Often called Rome’s greatest enemy, he fought three wars against the Roman republic.

The discovery has shed light on the history of protests in Phanagoria that led to the king’s ouster. The bireme, found in 2012, was thought at first to be an ancient Byzantine merchant vessel, but the one-meter long ram unearthed in 2014 dismissed this identification, and indicates instead that the ship was a warship used by Mithradates’s army to quell the protests. Examination of the remains suggests that the vessel was burned by the protesters in 63 BC. The vessel is now being restored and will be exhibited at the Phanagoria state museum, to be built near the archaeological site.

The Roman historian Appian and the Greek historian Plutarch mentioned a citywide uprising in Phanagoria in 63 BC that culminated with the incineration of a huge public building and murder of Mithradates’s children and a wife, Hypsikratia. However, there was no material proof of these events until 2006.

In 2006, scientists involved in the Phanagorian archeological expedition discovered a marble gravestone inscribed with an epitaph to “Hypsikrates, wife of Mithradates VI.” In his essays, Plutarch referred to Hypsikratia as a woman “who on all occasions showed the spirit of a man and desperate courage; and accordingly the king Mithradates VI used to call her Hypsikrates [the male form of Hypsikratia].” The Archaeological Institute of America named this find one of the ten most exciting discoveries in 2009.

Thus the ship’s ram continues a series of new discoveries that uncover the history of the Phanagoria uprising, while matching the historical narratives.

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The ancient bronze naval ram of Mithradates VI. Courtesy Volnoe Delo Oleg Deripaska Foundation.

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Archaeologists excavating part of Phanagoria’s ancient center. Courtesy Volnoe Delo Oleg Deripaska Foundation.

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A sampling of the many discoveries of Phanagoria. Courtesy Volnoe Delo Oleg Deripaska Foundation.

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Scientists began exploring the 2550-year-old city of Phanagoria many years before, when it became an essential part of the Russian Empire. The exploration’s active phase, however, began just several years ago, which means archaeologists and historians are almost certain to find more artifacts and information related to Phanagoria, an area that has been something of a bridge between the East and the West for 1,500 years.

Volnoe Delo Foundation, one of Russia’s biggest privately-held charity funds, managed by businessman and industrialist Oleg Deripaska, has supported research activities related to the site since 2004. The Foundation has allocated over $10 million to Phanagoria fieldwork over the past 10 years. Today, the Phanagoria investigation is considered one of the best equipped archeological expeditions in Russia, with its own scientific and cultural center, up-to-date equipment for above-ground and underwater excavation and a diverse team of specialists involved in the fieldwork. Apart from archeologists and historians, there are anthropologists, soil scientists, paleozoologists, numismatists and other researchers. A complex approach to the study of Phanagoria’s cultural remains has aided in understanding the ancient residents’ way of living, religious beliefs, economic cooperation, as well as their roles in military conflicts.

Among the recent discoveries made in Phanagoria are remains of a palace of Mithradates VI dated the 1^st century BC, an ancient tomb with a stepped ceiling, the oldest temple unearthed on Russian territory dating back to the 5^th century BC, and a number of submerged objects, e.g., the ancient city’s streets covered with sand, Phanagoria’s port structures, and ship debris.

The excavations cover several areas, including the 2,500-square-metre acropolis at the centre of the ancient city, the eastern necropolis, an ancient cemetery that served as a burial place from the founding of the city, and a submerged section of the city.

Phanagoria in History

Founded in the mid-sixth century BC by Greek colonists, the city was one of the two capitals of the Bosporan Kingdom, an ancient state located in eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula. Phanagoria was the major economic and cultural center of the Black Sea region, one of the biggest Greek cities, the first capital of Great Bulgaria, and one of the main cities of the Khazar Kaganate. It was also one of the ancient centers of Christianity. Saint Andrew was believed to preach in Phanagoria. The city boasts the largest Jewish community in the Black Sea region: the first synagogue in Russia was built in Phanagoria in the 16th century AD.

In the 9-10^th centuries the residents abandoned the city for reasons still unknown. Phanagoria is surrounded by Russia’s largest necropolis, covering an area of over 300 hectares. The total volume of the cultural layers consists of 2.5 million cubic meters of soil with a depth up to seven meters. No construction has occurred in the city since ancient times, which has helped preserve the ruins and the historical artifacts. Regular archeological expeditions have been conducted in Phanagoria since the late 1930s. As of now, only two percent of the city’s known area has been investigated.

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About the Volnoe Delo Oleg Deripaska Foundation

Oleg Deripaska’s Volnoe Delo Foundation (www.volnoe-delo.ru) is one of the largest charity organizations and was founded by the Russian industrialist and businessman, Oleg Deripaska. The Foundation supports a wide range of initiatives, with a particular focus on Russian education and science. It helps to support the country’s cultural and historic heritage, contributes to the preservation of spiritual values, and assists healthcare projects and solves crucial social problems.

Over the course of its work, the Foundation has found recipients among 86,000 school children, 4,000 teachers, 8,000 students, 4,000 academics and 1,100 educational, scientific, cultural, healthcare, sport, religious and other institutions.

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Source: Press release of the Volnoe Delo Oleg Deripaska Foundation

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Our Weaker Bones a Recent Evolutionary Development, Say Researchers

Posted on December 22, 2014 by No Author -

Based on research published this week in the journal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, scientists are suggesting that humans evolved with a weaker bone structure after they left their hunter-gatherer lifestyle thousands of years ago, with modern health implications for today’s populations.

According to one lead study author, Habiba Chirchir: “Our study shows that modern humans have less bone density than seen in related species, and it doesn’t matter if we look at bones from people who lived in an industrial society or agriculturalist populations that had a more active life. They both have much less bone density” compared to humans who led a hunter-gatherer lifestyle thousands of years ago. Chirchir is a postdoctoral researcher at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History.

The research sought to determine the bone density difference among both human and non-human primate species across thousands of years of evolutionary history using comparative high-resolution imaging of ancient and more recent human bone samples, from human farmers and hunter-gatherers who lived in a region contained by the present-day State of Illinois in the U.S. to hominid species thought to be ancestral to humans deep in human evolutionary prehistory in other parts of the world, as well as chimpanzees. The researchers focused on trabecular structure, specifically the ‘spongy’ portion of the bone that characterizes joints such as in the hips, knees, ankles, and arm joints.

The researchers found that the trabecular structure is similar in all populations, except that among bones associated with hunter-gatherer populations, the mesh, or spongy portion, has a much higher amount of actual bone relative to air. “Trabecular bone has much greater plasticity than other bone, changing shape and direction depending on the loads imposed on it; it can change structure from being pin or rod-like to much thicker, almost plate-like. In the hunter-gatherer bones, everything was thickened,” said a study co-author, Dr Colin Shaw from the University of Cambridge’s Phenotypic Adaptability, Variation and Evolution (PAVE) Research Group.

The thickening, say the researchers, results from constant loading on the bone, which creates minor damage in the bone mesh, causing it to grow back stronger and thicker throughout life. The building reaches a ‘peak point’ of bone strength, which can also counter-balance deterioration of bones with age.

Most significantly, the results showed low trabecular density only among recent modern humans, and that the decrease is especially pronounced in the lower joints, such as in the hip, knee, and ankle, and less so among the upper joints—the shoulder, elbow, and hand. The researchers suggest that the emergence of this change late in human evolutionary history may have been due to transition from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled lifestyle.

“Much to our surprise, throughout our deep past, we see that our human ancestors and relatives, who lived in natural settings, had very dense bone. And even early members of our species, going back 20,000 years or so, had bone that was about as dense as seen in other modern species,” said Brian Richmond, a study author, curator with the American Museum of Natural History and research professor at George Washington University. “But this density drastically drops off in more recent times, when we started to use agricultural tools to grow food and settle in one place.”

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This image show a comparison between bone mass in a hunter-gatherer and an agriculturalist hip joint. Courtesy Timothy Ryan and Colin Shaw

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This illustration shows that modern people (right) have unusually low density in bones throughout the skeleton, including the hand bone joints (metacarpal heads) shown here. This new study found that bone joint density remained high throughout human evolution spanning millions of years, until it decreased significantly in recent modern humans, probably as a result of an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. From left to right: modern chimpanzee, Australopithecus, Neanderthal, and modern human. Credit: © AMNH/J. Steffey

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Some researchers believe that an important tip could be drawn from the research for today’s human populations. “You can absolutely morph even your bones so that they deal with stress and strain more effectively,” says Shaw. “Hip fractures, for example, don’t have to happen simply because you get older if you build your bone strength up earlier in life, so that as you age it never drops below that level where fractures can easily occur.”

“The fact is,” continues Shaw, “we can be as strong as an orangutan – we’re just not, because we are not challenging our bones with enough loading, predisposing us to have weaker bones so that, as we age, situations arise where bones are breaking when, previously, they would not have.”

The research thus also provides an anthropological basis for explaining modern bone conditions like osteoporosis, a bone-weakening condition that develops with age among modern populations because of decreased walking due to sedentary lifestyles and modern transportation conveniences.

“Over the vast majority of human prehistory, our ancestors engaged in far more activity over longer distances than we do today,” said Richmond. “We cannot fully understand human health today without knowing how our bodies evolved to work in the past, so it is important to understand how our skeletons evolved within the context of those high levels of activity.”

The research is published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

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Source Information: The American Museum of Natural History and the University of Cambridge

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