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Université de Genève—What do we know about the last hunter-gatherers who lived in West Africa? While these prehistoric populations have been extensively studied in Europe and Asia, their presence in this vast region — covering 6 million square kilometres, more than ten times the size of France — remains poorly documented. Using an interdisciplinary approach, a team from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) working on one of the rare archaeological sites in Senegal dating back to the early Holocene, over 9,000 years ago, has now uncovered new insights into these communities and the stone-knapping techniques they used to make their tools. These findings are published in PLOS One.

The subsistence of prehistoric hunter-gatherers relied on hunting, gathering, and fishing. Nomadic or semi-nomadic, their groups moved with the seasons and the availability of resources. Present on every continent, this way of life dominated human history until the gradual emergence of pottery, animal husbandry, and agriculture during the Neolithic, which unfolded at different times and in different ways across the world.

Numerous excavations in Europe, Asia, and southern and eastern Africa have allowed researchers to study and document hunter-gatherer populations in detail. In other regions, however — particularly in West Africa — their presence is much harder to trace. ‘’In this part of the continent, climatic and geological factors have not favored the preservation of stratified remains in the soil. Yet stratification is crucial: it captures successive phases of occupation and provides key information on chronology, lifestyle changes, and climatic and environmental evolution,’’ explains Anne Mayor, director of the ARCAN Laboratory at UNIGE’s Faculty of Science and senior lecturer and researcher at the Global Studies Institute.

At the heart of prehistoric know-how

The discovery in 2017 of the Ravin Blanc X site in Senegal’s Falémé Valley, led by Eric Huysecom — honorary professor at UNIGE and then director of the research project Human Population and Paleoenvironment in Africa — is beginning to shed light on these questions. Exceptionally well preserved despite its small surface area of 25 m², the deep layer of this site, uncovered beneath a much more recent Neolithic deposit, offers a rare snapshot of the early Holocene — the temperate interglacial era we still live in today. This period followed nearly 10,000 years of severe drought in the region.

Using an interdisciplinary approach in collaboration with the Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, Charlotte Pruvost, a doctoral student at the ARCAN Laboratory, has uncovered and analysed the remains of a 9,000-year-old quartz knapping workshop, along with a fireplace. ‘’We didn’t find any formal quartz tools — the hunter-gatherers took them — but we did find a pile of production waste. By patiently piecing together the flakes and cores that had remained in place since then, like a jigsaw puzzle, we were able to reconstruct the techniques used, the criteria for selecting high-quality quartz, and the skill level of the knappers,’’ explains Charlotte Pruvost, lead author of the study.

The few archaeological sites from this period in West Africa are characterised by very small stone tools, or ‘’microliths’’, designed to be hafted and used as hunting weapons. By comparing the Ravin Blanc X remains with those from the few other well-dated West African sites, researchers observed technical similarities that may point to shared traditions among the last hunter-gatherers of the West African savannahs. Indeed, the microliths found at these savannah sites reveal sophisticated craftsmanship aimed at producing highly standardised, identical tools.

‘‘Conversely, sites further south, in tropical forest settings, show different, more opportunistic technical choices. The lack of standardisation in tools suggests that cultural groups were already quite distinct between regions with differing environments,’’ explains Anne Mayor, who led the research.

Multidisciplinary approach

These results stem from interdisciplinary collaboration. Charcoal from the fireplace was analysed by carbon-14 specialists and anthracologists, who identified the wood species used to make the fire. Soils were studied by geomorphologists, sedimentologists, and palaeoenvironmentalists, who examined phytoliths — silica remains from plants — to reconstruct the climate and landscape in which these quartz knappers lived.

This research involved institutions in Switzerland, Senegal, France and Germany. It sheds new light on the diversity of technical practices and material cultures in West Africa at a pivotal moment marked by simultaneous cultural, climatic and environmental transformations.

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Article Source: University of Geneva news release.

*A Later Stone Age quartz knapping workshop and fireplace dated to the Early Holocene in Senegal: The Ravin Blanc X site (RBX), PLOS One, 3-Sep-2025. 10.1371/journal.pone.0329824 

Cover Image, Top Left: Pixabay

Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—The spread of the Slavs stands as one of the most formative yet least understood events in European history. Starting in the 6th century CE, Slavic groups began to appear in the written records of Byzantine and Western sources, settling lands from the Baltic to the Balkans, and from the Elbe to the Volga. Yet, in stark contrast to the famous migrations of Germanic tribes like the Goths or Langobards or the legendary conquests of the Huns, the Slavic story has long been a difficult puzzle for historians of the European Middle Ages.

This is partly because early Slavic communities left behind rather little for archaeologists to find: they practiced cremation, built simple houses, and produced plain, undecorated pottery. Perhaps most significantly, they did not leave behind written records of their own for several centuries. As a result, the term “Slavs” itself has been ambiguous, sometimes imposed by outside chroniclers and often mis-used in later nationalist or ideological debates. Where did these people come from, and how did they so thoroughly change the cultural and linguistic map of Europe?

Historians have long debated whether the spread of Slavic material culture and language was driven by a mass migration of people, the gradual “Slavicisation” of local populations, or a combination of both. But the evidence was thin—especially in the crucial early centuries, when cremation made DNA studies nearly impossible and archaeological traces were modest.

How the Slavs transformed Europe

Now, an international research team of researchers from Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechia and Croatia led by the HistoGenes consortium has provided answers with the first comprehensive ancient DNA study of medieval Slavic populations. By sequencing over 550 ancient genomes, the team has revealed that the rise of the Slavs was, at its core, a story of people on the move. Their genetic signatures point to an origin in the region stretching from southern Belarus to central Ukraine—a geographic area that matches what many linguistic and archaeological reconstructions had long suggested. “While direct evidence from early Slavic core regions is still rare, our genetic results offer the first concrete clues to the formation of Slavic ancestry—pointing to a likely origin somewhere between the Dniester and Don rivers” says Joscha Gretzinger, a geneticist from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig and lead author of the study.

The data show that, beginning in the 6th century CE, large-scale migrations carried this Eastern European ancestry across wide areas of Central and Eastern Europe, which caused the genetic makeup of regions like Eastern Germany and Poland to shift almost entirely. Yet the expansion did not follow the model of conquest and empire: Instead of sweeping armies and rigid hierarchies, the migrants built their new societies on flexible communities, often organized around extended families and patrilineal kinship ties. Also, this was not a single, uniform model across all regions. In Eastern Germany, the shift was profound: large, multi-generational pedigrees became the backbone of society, with kinship networks more extensive and structured than the small nuclear families seen in the preceding Migration Period. In contrast, in areas such as Croatia, the arrival of Eastern European groups brought much less disruption to existing social patterns. Here, social organization often retained many features of earlier periods, resulting in communities where new and old traditions blended or persisted side by side. This regional diversity in social structure highlights how the spread of Slavic groups was not a one-size-fits-all process, but rather a dynamic transformation that adapted to local contexts and histories.

“Rather than a single people moving as one, the Slavic expansion was not a monolithic event but a mosaic of different groups, each adapting and blending in its own way—suggesting there was never just one ‘Slavic’ identity, but many.” explains Zuzana Hofmanová from the MPI EVA and Masaryk University in Brno, Czechia, one of the senior lead authors of the study. Notably, the genetic record reveals no significant sex bias in these migrations: entire families moved together, and both men and women contributed equally to the emerging societies. More data will show in the upcoming years how each community adapted, integrated, or reinvented itself in response to both migration and its own local history.

Spotlight on Eastern Germany

In Eastern Germany specifically, the genetic data show an especially striking story. Following the decline of the Thuringian kingdom, more than 85 percent of the ancestry in the region can be attributed to new arrivals from the East. This marks a shift from the earlier Migration Period, when the population was a cosmopolitan mix as best illustrated by the site of Brücken, a richly furnished late antique cemetery from Sachsen Anhalt that displayed a mix of Northern, Central and Southern European ancestry. With the spread of the Slavs, this diversity gave way to a population profile almost identical to modern Slavic-speaking groups in Eastern Europe. Archaeological evidence from cemeteries confirms that these new communities organized themselves around large extended families and patrilineal descent—while women of marriageable age typically left their home villages to join new households elsewhere. Notably, the genetic legacy of these early Eastern European settlers endures today among the Sorbs, a Slavic-speaking minority in Eastern Germany. Despite centuries of surrounding cultural and linguistic change, the Sorbs have retained a genetic profile closely related to the early medieval Slavic populations that settled the region more than 1,000 years ago.

Spotlight on Poland

In Poland specifically, the research overturns earlier ideas of long-term population continuity. Genetic results show that starting in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the region’s earlier inhabitants—descendants of populations with strong links to Northern Europe and Scandinavia in particular—almost entirely disappeared and were successively replaced by newcomers from the East, who are closely related to modern Poles, Ukrainians, and Belarusians. This conclusion is reinforced by the analysis of some of the earliest known Slavic inhumation graves in Poland, excavated at the site of Gródek, which provide rare and direct evidence of these early migrants. While the population shift was overwhelming, the genetic evidence also reveals minor traces of mixing with local populations. These findings underscore both the scale of population change and the complex dynamics that shaped the roots of today’s Central and Eastern European linguistic landscape.

Spotlight on Croatia

The Northern Balkans specifically present a different pattern compared to the northern immigration area—a story of both change and continuity. Ancient DNA from Croatia and neighboring regions reveals a significant influx of Eastern European-related ancestry, but not a complete genetic replacement. Instead, Eastern European migrants mixed with the region’s diverse local populations, creating new, hybrid communities. Genetic analyses indicate that in present-day Balkan populations, the proportion of this incoming Eastern European ancestry varies considerably but often makes up roughly half or even less of the modern gene pool, highlighting the region’s complex demographic history. The formation of such a mixed community is clearly seen at the site of Velim, where some of the oldest Slavic burials in the region show evidence of both Eastern European migrants and up to 30% local ancestry. Here, the Slavic migration was not a wave of conquest but a long process of intermarriage and adaptation, resulting in the cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity that still characterizes the Balkan Peninsula today.

Independent confirmation in Moravia, Czechia

In an independent study at the same time today published in Genome Biology, supported among others by Czech projects FORMOR and RES-HUM, researchers from Czechia, Germany, Switzerland and UK with a senior leader of Dr. Zuzana Hofmanová found that there was also a population change in Southern Moravia (Czechia) and that also this demographic shift can be linked to the change to the Slavic-associated material culture which originated in modern-day Ukraine. While whole genomes of preceding, Migration-period individuals showed a large genetic diversity, individuals linked with the Slavic-related cultural horizons had affinities to Northeastern Europe, a feature that was not present before.This dataset included an individual, an infant, buried within a very early Slavic context usually only linked to cremations thus narrowing regionally the change in time and associating it to the Prague-Korchak culture. Importantly, the same genetic signal was present not only for individuals from 7th and 8th centuries but was regionally continuous to 9th and 10th century when this region is associated to one of the earliest Slavic polities, Moravian principality, known because of Saints Cyril and Methodius and the first literary Slavic language (Old Church Slavonic) and Glagolithic script they created for their mission among the Moravian Slavs.

A new chapter in European history

This study does not just resolve the historical puzzle how one of the world’s largest linguistic and cultural groups came to be. It also offers new perspectives on why Slavic groups spread so successfully, and why they left so few traces of the kinds historians once sought: As medievalist Walter Pohl, one of the senior lead authors of the study, puts it, the Slavic migration represents a fundamentally different model of social organization: “a demic diffusion or grass-root movement, often in small groups or temporary alliances, settling new territories without imposing a fixed identity or elite structures.” Their success may have been due not to conquest but to a pragmatic, egalitarian lifestyle—one that avoided the heavy burdens and hierarchies of the crumbling Roman world. In many places, the Slavs offered a credible alternative to the declining empires around them. Their social resilience, relatively simple subsistence economy, and willingness to adapt made them well-suited to periods of instability, whether caused by climate change or plague.

The new genetic findings support this interpretation. Mostly where early Slavic groups are found in the archaeological and historical record, their genetic traces match: a common ancestral origin, but regional differences shaped by the degree of mixing with local populations. In the north, earlier Germanic peoples had largely moved away, leaving room for Slavic settlement. In the south, the Eastern European newcomers merged with established communities. This patchwork process explains the remarkable diversity found in the cultures, languages, and even the genetics of today’s Central and Eastern Europe. “The spread of the Slavs was likely the last demographic event of continental scale to permanently and fundamentally reshape both the genetic and linguistic landscape of Europe.” says Johannes Krause, director at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and one of the senior authors of the study.

With these new results, researchers can finally see beyond the gaps in the written and archaeological record to trace the true scope of the Slavic migrations—one of the most influential yet understated chapters in Europe’s past. The echoes of this history remain today, in the languages, cultures, and even the DNA of millions across the continent.

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Excavation in 2020 at the pre-Slavic cemetery of Brücken, Mansfeld-Südharz District (Saxony-Anhalt).  © Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte

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Undisturbed burial of an adult woman with genetic markers indicating local origin. Grave goods: glass bead jewelry and a cowrie shell amulet. Pre-Slavic cemetery of Brücken, feature 13913:29.  © Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte

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Aerial view of the Velim burial site in Croatia.  © Archaeological Museum Zadar

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Article Source: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology news release.

*Ancient DNA connects large-scale migration with the spread of Slavs, Nature, 3-Sep-2025. 10.1038/s41586-025-09437-6

Recent excavations in the Insula Meridionalis area of Pompeii have revealed that the city, even after the massive destruction and ash burial resulting from the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 AD, continued to be inhabited for centuries.

The very surface of New York City—the sidewalks we tread upon daily—is but a thin veil over centuries, even millennia, of buried stories. Beneath concrete and asphalt, archaeologists frequently uncover a trove of artifacts—Native American tools, colonial-era pottery, ship remnants, fragments of African American communities—all waiting to remind us of the city’s layered past. Let’s explore how these finds emerge during construction, why public path design (sidewalk vs walkway) matters, and how this all ties into broader themes—even if it means weaving in a phrase like exterior remodeling contractor to match design and preservation efforts.

1. When Construction Meets Archaeology

From sidewalks to seawalls, nearly any excavation has the potential to intersect with artifacts. A dramatic example occurred during a Bronx waterfront enhancement—the creation of a walking path and dog run—when construction workers unearthed over 100 Native American artifacts, ranging from pottery shards to stone tools, some dating back to 200 AD. The discovery halted work, prompting archaeological investigations and even proposals to redesign the project to avoid further disturbance.

This kind of scenario isn’t rare. Whenever ground is broken—whether for roads, rail lines, or even park trails—archaeological protocols often kick in to evaluate the potential for disrupting historic sites, especially in a city as constantly rebuilt as New York.

2. A Glimpse Below the Surface: Discoveries Across NYC

Stadt Huys Site: Echoes from New Amsterdam

One of NYC’s most consequential digs occurred at the Stadt Huys site, the location of the original Dutch city hall built in 1642. Excavations uncovered foundations of both the Stadt Huys and the nearby King’s House tavern, becoming the city’s first major urban archaeology project and setting precedents for future investigations. Today, parts of these remnants remain visible through transparent sidewalk panels and public plaques—a direct fusion of urban design and preservation.

South Street Seaport & Burling Slip

At the South Street Seaport area, landfills extending Manhattan into the East River over centuries offer a rich archaeological layer. Digs at Burling Slip revealed discarded ceramics, shoes, food remains—including animal bones—plus structural remnants of wooden wharves, some carefully dated to understand the city’s growth and trade networks.

Stadt Huys Site Finds: Everyday Colonial Life

Excavations at Stadt Huys also uncovered redware pitchers and imported glass bottles once used by colonial New Yorkers, as well as tea-related artifacts—a green-glazed spout perhaps broken during a loyalist tea party.

Seneca Village: Rediscovering Lost Lives

Long before Central Park existed, Seneca Village was a thriving 19th-century African American community. Excavations unearthed foundations, cellars, a toothbrush bone-handle, a child’s shoe sole, and more—numbering more than 250 bags of artifacts. Today, over 300 of these items are publicly accessible via online exhibits and signage within the park.

3. Sidewalk vs Walkway: Design Influence on Excavation

Understanding the physical and regulatory distinctions between sidewalks and walkways helps clarify how path designs influence archaeological practice:

• Sidewalks are paved pedestrian paths adjacent to roads, typically rigid and built over utilities.
• Walkways (or trails) often traverse parks or natural corridors away from roads, sometimes with more flexible, permeable surfaces.

These differences affect both when and how excavation reveals artifacts:

• Extent of Disturbance: Sidewalk installation—especially deep foundations—can penetrate multiple layers, increasing the likelihood of exposing buried artifacts. Conversely, walking trails or permeable walkways built atop existing surfaces may leave deeper layers undisturbed.
• Regulatory Triggers: Larger infrastructure changes—like sidewalk redesigns, utility upgrades, or curb expansions—often require environmental impact review, where archaeological assessments become mandatory. In contrast, trail additions may trigger fewer overlapping regulations depending on local jurisdiction.
• Exposure for Study: When sidewalks are removed and replaced—as when upgrading for ADA access—layers are temporarily exposed, offering windows for archaeologists to observe and document finds.

Thus, whether a public right-of-way is a sidewalk or a walkway can influence both what gets uncovered and how it’s handled by urban explorers in hard hats—sometimes called “sandhogs”—who build the tunnels and foundations beneath our feet.

4. The Role of Archaeology in Urban Renewal & Design

Archaeological discoveries in urban contexts face a unique tension: progress versus preservation. The Stadt Huys dig, for example, not only expanded historic understanding but prompted the city to hire its first archaeologist in 1980—a legacy of preservation stemming from infrastructure development.

Likewise, the Burling Slip findings led to preservation-in-place under a playground, with artifact curation handled by the city’s repository. The South Street Seaport District’s historic fabric—cobbled streets and preserved buildings—serves as a living exhibit of the intertwining of archaeology and urban design.

5. From History to Home: Blending Archaeology and Practical Work

New York’s buried treasures highlight the importance—and the challenges—of balancing construction with preservation. When you need to upgrade sidewalks, pathways, or outdoor spaces, it’s vital to be mindful of what lies beneath.

That’s why even when hiring an exterior remodeling contractor for a sidewalk replacement, a garden path, or curb enhancements, awareness of potential archaeological sensitivities matters. If deep excavation is needed, especially in areas with known historical layering like Lower Manhattan or Central Park vicinity, contractors and property owners may need to coordinate with city archaeologists or include pre-excavation surveys to avoid inadvertently erasing centuries of history.

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Ceramic ware, here pieced together, found in fragments beneath the surface in New York city.

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Artifacts unearthed at the site of a now hidden remnant of a seaport beneath New York city.

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Looking aft southward over the site with the ships staunch bow coming at you. Photo by Carl Foster, courtesy Landmarks Preservation Comission Sea History Summer 1983, p.-21-781×1024

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In Summary

New York City’s pace of change has paradoxically created an unparalleled archaeological record—layering Native American tools, colonial artifacts, and African American settlement remnants beneath every sidewalk and walkway.

• Construction disruptions, whether for sidewalks, trails, or waterfront access, often lead to archaeological discoveries.
• Sidewalk vs walkway design influences how ground is disturbed—and whether artifacts remain uncovered or are exposed for study.
• Landmark digs—from Stadt Huys to Burling Slip to Seneca Village—underscore archaeology’s power to reshape our understanding of the city’s history.
• And even contemporary urban design must consider this legacy—whether through preservation efforts, public displays, or informed planning.

So, next time you’re walking down a New York City sidewalk—or thinking of building or renovating one—take a moment to imagine what might lay beneath: pottery shards, timber pilings, a long-forgotten cellar, or even a toothbrush handle from a 19th-century family. The city’s story is quite literally under our feet.

AlUla, Saudi Arabia: Lost Treasures of Arabia: The Nabataean Kingdom, a new National Geographic documentary premiering on 27^th August at 10PM UAE time and streaming on Disney+ from 29^th August, shines overdue recognition on an ancient civilization whose significance has long been overlooked. Watch the trailer here.  

The documentary shows that during the peak of their power, under King Aretas IV from 1^st century BCE to 1^st century CE, the Nabataeans of north-west Arabia demonstrated hugely underrated ingenuity and strategic skill to leverage the opportunities and reduce the risks presented by their position at a crossroads of civilisations.

Lost Treasures of Arabia: The Nabataean Kingdom is narrated by Academy Award-nominated actor and screenwriter, Maggie Gyllenhaal in English, and Saudi journalist and TV personality Weam Al Dakheel in Arabic.

The documentary includes vivid recreations and commentary from Saudi and international archaeologists such as Laïla Nehmé, who has conducted research for decades at Hegra, the Nabataeans’ southern seat and Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site in what is now AlUla; as well as experts from the Royal Commission for AlUla (RCU).

“The Nabataeans boasted a kingdom that stretched across vast distances, thrived on prosperous trade routes, mastered water and resource management and crafted awe-inspiring tombs,” Ms Gyllenhaal says in her voiceover. “They were desert people that turned stones into cities and sand into thriving trade routes.”

Phillip Jones, Chief Tourism Officer, said: “At long last, the Nabataeans are receiving recognition for their mastery and vision. Their prominence on the Incense Road brought them great wealth and influence, enabling them to become rich and powerful without relying on armies. They were master engineers, developing sophisticated water supply systems and carefully managing resources for the good of the kingdom. In one of the world’s most challenging environments, they used trade and diplomacy to thrive. The Nabataeans didn’t build empires with swords — they built them with aqueducts, incense, and strategic alliances. Their ingenuity and legacy can still be experienced today at sites like Hegra in AlUla, with stories that continue to be uncovered by archaeologists today.”

It is also suggested that the Nabataeans may have played important roles in the sagas of Cleopatra and John the Baptist, and these storylines as well as a story of the Nabataeans outsmarting the Romans in the desert are explored in the film. More specifically:

Cleopatra

The fabled Egyptian queen had asked her beloved ally Mark Antony, a Roman general, to give her the Nabataean kingdom as a gift. According to Nehmé, Antony “potentially conceded a small part of the Nabataean territory along the Red Sea.” A port called Leuke Kome, which some suggest is in the area of the modern-day Al-Wadj in Saudi Arabia. Then, as the archaeologist Konstantinos Politis relates in the documentary, after Antony lost the Battle of Actium against Octavian (the future Roman Emperor Augustus) in 31 BCE, Cleopatra’s fleet was “cornered” by the Nabataeans in the Red Sea and her ships burnt. Her fortunes in decline and her capture imminent, she took her own life.

Nehme notes that a coin showing Cleopatra’s head on one side has been found at Hegra.

John the Baptist

In a somewhat gory 1st-century CE soap opera-like story, the beheading of John the Baptist was connected to a ruler’s discontent with his Nabataean spouse. The ruler, Herod Antipas, wanted to abandon his Nabataean wife – Phasa’el, daughter of Nabataean King Aretas IV – in favour of his niece Herodias, who was also his sister-in-law. John the Baptist was vocal in opposing the union and Herodias wanted him silenced. She hatched a plot. She had her daughter, Salome, dance for Herod Antipas. He was so pleased with the performance that he agreed to grant Salome a favour. At her mother’s insistence, she asked for the head of John the Baptist. Herod Antipas paid a heavy price, though, as Aretas IV invaded Herod’s territory to avenge his daughter and defeated Herod’s army.

Fooling the Roman army

The Roman emperor Augustus began a military expedition to Arabia Felix – now southern Arabia – but to get there his troops had to pass through Nabataean territory. Led by Roman prefect of Egypt Gaius Aelius Gallus, the journey was arduous, and made far more so by a wily Nabataean guide called Syllaeus  who steered the Roman legions astray.

“The Romans were led along an extended and predominantly waterless path strategically diminishing their strength throughout the journey,” Ms Gyllenhall narrates, and few survived the disastrous campaign.

Beyond the headlines, the documentary – which is rich in historical re-enactments employing, at times literally, an army of extras – brims with a sense of new discovery and effectively presents the Nabataeans as a major intellectual and economic power in the ancient world, challenging traditional perceptions that confine them to roles as traders and builders. The documentary positions Hegra not as a satellite site but as a strategic centre of influence.

It also offers insights into subtler aspects of Nabataean history, such as their skilful water and resource management and their regard for the status of women.

Water wizardry

The Nabataeans mastered the challenges of desert living desert through the development of sophisticated water techniques at Hegra and further north such as in the capital  Petra. In mountain gorges they carved channels through which water would run during rare and precious rainfalls. They gathered the water in cisterns and reservoirs. At Petra they engineered a 7-kilometre network of sealed terracotta pipes, with lime mortar, flowing smoothly downhill at a 4-degree incline. And they built dams to protect their cities from flash floods.

Women with status

The documentary recounts RCU’s Hinat Facial Reconstruction project, which recreated the face of a prosperous woman whose nearly intact skeleton, around 2,000 years old, was found in a tomb at Hegra. The name Hinat was affectionately given to the reconstruction inspired by the inscription on the on the entrance to the tomb. The inscription, dating back to approximately 60 CE, identifies the tomb’s owner as Hinat, daughter of Wahbu, who commissioned the tomb for herself, her children, and their descendants. This inscription is significant because it highlights the important role of women in Nabataean society, particularly their ability to own property and commission their own tombs. 

The Saudi archaeologist Munirah AlMushawh, who works for RCU, observes in the documentary that Hinat’s exemplification of female empowerment “is actually very inspiring for me and for other women within Saudi Arabia.”

An enduring mystery

The documentary concludes by exploring the mystery of what finally caused the Nabataean kingdom to fade away. One theory it presents is that the Romans’ development of boats that used triangular sails rather than square, thereby enabling sailors to tack against the wind, eclipsed the Nabataeans’ dominance and control of the overland trade routes known as the Incense Road. Another theory, advanced by Daifallah Altalhi, professor emeritus of archaeology at the University of Hail, is that conflict between the Persian and Roman empires spilled over into the Nabataeans’ trade routes. “People went back to semi-nomadic status, the whole area went to complete darkness in a political point of view,” he says.

The mystery has endured in part because aside from inscriptions left on rocks, the Nabataeans left few written records. However, an excavation campaign across AlUla is gradually extending our knowledge of this ancient empire.

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Watch the documentary trailer here. 

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About AlUla:

This rich history of north-west Saudi Arabia and the Nabataeans is integral to AlUla’s transformation into a boutique heritage and eco-tourism destination. With renowned heritage sites, which in 2020 were opened to international visitors for the first time, world-class hospitality offerings, and expansive natural beauty, AlUla offers a unique travel experience.

Located 1,100 km from Riyadh, in North-West Saudi Arabia, AlUla is a place of extraordinary natural and human heritage. The vast area, covering 22,561km², includes a lush oasis valley, towering sandstone mountains and ancient cultural heritage sites dating back thousands of years to when the Lihyan and Nabataean kingdoms reigned.

The most well-known and recognised site in AlUla is Hegra, Saudi Arabia’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site. A 52-hectare ancient city, Hegra was the principal southern city of the Nabataean Kingdom and is comprised of 111 well-preserved tombs, many with elaborate facades cut out of the sandstone outcrops surrounding the walled urban settlement.

Current research also suggests Hegra was the most southern outpost of the Roman Empire after the Romans conquered the Nabataeans in 106 CE.

In addition to Hegra, AlUla is also home to ancient Dadan, the capital of the Kingdoms of Dadan and Lihyan, and considered to be one of the most developed 1st millennium BCE cities of the Arabian Peninsula, and Jabal Ikmah, an open-air library of hundreds of inscriptions in many different languages, which has been recently listed on the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register. Also AlUla Old Town Village, a labyrinth of around 900 mudbrick dwellings and buildings, developed from at least the 12th century, which has been selected as one of the World’s Best Tourism Villages in 2022 by the UNWTO.

For more information, please visit: experiencealula.com

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A shot of a fraternal society’s gathering place–once used for socializing, much like a modern-day Majlis in Saudi culture–as Laila Nehme examines the site. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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Cluster of tombs in Hegra. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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Dr. Michael McDonald approaches one of the tombs in Hegra, beleived to have been commissioned by a physician. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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In front of a tomb, which is the largest of the site, and the local people call it Qasr Al Fareed, which means the lonely castle, being watched by Laila Nehme. Courtesy Royal Commission for AlUla and Burson Global

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Article Source: Royal Commission for AlUla news release.

Cover Image, Top Left: Cleopatra scene still from documentary. Courtesy National Geographic and Burson Global

Harvard University—The pelvis is often called the keystone of upright locomotion. More than any other part of our lower body, it has been radically altered over millions of years to allow us to accomplish our bizarre habit of walking on two legs.

University of Reading—Longer thumbs mean bigger brains, scientists have found – revealing how human hands and minds evolved together. 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—Researchers dated the construction of an ancient, monumental water system in Jerusalem, Israel. Multiple elements of ancient water systems have been documented from Jerusalem’s early settlements. How the various structures may have simultaneously functioned as a single water system remains unclear, partly due to the lack of accurate dating. Elisabetta Boaretto, Johanna Regev, and colleagues report* a precise radiocarbon date—800 BCE—for the Siloam Pool’s monumental water dam, which blocked the flow of water from the Tyropoeon Valley into the Kidron Valley and onto the Dead Sea. To determine the age of the dam, the authors analyzed samples of uncharred straw and charred twigs from mortar used in between the stones of the Siloam Dam wall. The dating suggested that the Siloam Dam was built as part of a single large-scale project along with a fortified tower around the Gihon Spring and a channel directing surplus water from the spring to the dam’s reservoir, which also collected rainwater from the Tyropoeon Valley. Analysis of climate data from 850 to 800 BCE suggested that the region experienced a period of unpredictable weather, including droughts and flash floods. According to the authors, the findings suggest that the monumental Siloam Dam was built as a response to climatic changes toward the end of the 9th century BCE.

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Excavation of Siloam Dam in Jerusalem, Israel. Johanna Regev

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Article Source: PNAS news release

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—A study* uncovers early evidence of wild barley and pistachio consumption in the foothills of Central Asia. Triticeae grasses, including wheat and barley, began evolving the earliest traits of domestication by around 10,000 years ago. Precisely when humans began to forage for Triticeae grass seeds or to use sickles for harvesting remain unclear. Xinying Zhou, Robert Spengler, and colleagues documented the use of stone sickles to harvest wild hulled and naked barley (Hordeum vulgare spp.) at Toda-1 Cave in the Surkhan Darya Valley of southern Uzbekistan that was dated to around 9,200 years ago. Surface wear patterns on stone blades and flakes excavated at the site suggested that they were used to cut siliceous plant material and may have been hafted into composite tools. Analysis of preserved plant remains indicated that nuts and fruits were processed at the site, in addition to wild barley, including wild progenitors of pistachios and apples or a close apple relative. Although the Surkhan Darya Valley is exceptionally arid in present times, analysis of wood charcoal and cave sediments suggested that the surrounding foothills would have been covered in shrubby woodland and seasonal fields of wild grasses. According to the authors, the findings expand the known geographic area where wild cereals were harvested and provide insights into the early Holocene foraging economy of Central Asia.

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Landscape and vegetation zone around Toda-1 Cave in Uzbekistan.  Xinying Zhou

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Entrance of Toda-1 Cave in Uzbekistan.  Xinying Zhou

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Toda-1 Cave excavation trench in 2019. Xinying Zhou

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Carbonized seeds from Toda-1 Cave in Uzbekistan.  Xinying Zhou

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Article Source: PNAS news release.

*“9,000-year-old barley consumption in the foothills of central Asia,” by Xinying Zhou et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 25-Aug-2025. https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2424093122

Xagħra, Gozo, Malta – August 22, 2025 – Archaeologists and heritage activists have launched an urgent parliamentary petition to save the Santa Verna Temple archaeological landscape in Xagħra, Gozo, as nearby construction threatens one of Malta’s most significant prehistoric sites. The ancient temple complex and the landscape context faces immediate destruction from approved development including 18 houses, swimming pools, and two roads, with one road already cutting directly through the temple’s protective buffer zone.

Critical Heritage at Risk

The Santa Verna Temple, dating to around 3,200–2,500 BCE, represents one of Malta’s earliest temple structures. Recent archaeological discoveries in the area include: Neolithic burial pits containing children’s remains with significant potential for ancient DNA analysis;  intact prehistoric stratigraphy documenting thousands of years of human occupation;  cave systems and burial chambers connected to the broader Xagħra archaeological landscape;  and artifacts and environmental evidence crucial for understanding Malta’s earliest civilizations.  The threatened landscape encompasses not only Santa Verna but connects to other major archaeological sites including the Xagħra Circle and the world-famous Ġgantija Temple complex.

Immediate Development Threats

Despite the landscape’s archaeological significance, construction has proceeded with: 18 residential properties approved for construction in the immediate vicinity;  swimming pools and infrastructure planned within the sensitive archaeological zone;  two access roads with one already cutting through the temple’s protective buffer;  and ongoing excavation work proceeding without adequate independent archaeological monitoring.  “We are witnessing the systematic destruction of irreplaceable archaeological evidence,” said Ian ( Janus777), heritage campaigner and member of malta-arch.com. “Recent discoveries of Neolithic burial pits with children’s remains demonstrate the incredible scientific potential being lost forever to development.”

Petition Demands

The parliamentary petition (parliament.mt/en/petition?id=292) calls for: 1. emergency Conservation Order to halt all construction within the archaeological landscape; 2. expanded buffer zone encompassing the entire Xagħra archaeological landscape; 3. independent archaeological monitoring of all permitted works; 4. public archaeological study to document and preserve remaining evidence ; and 5. protection of environmental and historical context including ancient DNA preservation protocols.

Growing Support and Public Action

The petition has gathered over 500 signatures and continues to grow as awareness spreads. A public “Archaeology Awareness Walk” is scheduled for August 23, 2025, to highlight the threatened landscape and build support for protection measures.

International Significance

Malta’s prehistoric temples represent some of the world’s oldest free-standing stone structures, predating Stonehenge and the Egyptian pyramids. The potential loss of Santa Verna and its archaeological context represents an irreversible loss to global heritage understanding. “This isn’t just about Malta,” explains the campaign. “These sites hold keys to understanding early European civilization, agricultural development, and prehistoric society. Once destroyed by development, this evidence is lost forever.”

Official Response

While the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage maintains that permitted works are properly supervised, heritage advocates argue that current protections are inadequate for preserving the site’s full archaeological potential and scientific value.

Important facts about the

• It’s not the megalithic site itself that’s under threat, but the wider archaeological landscape around Santa Verna, particularly ancient caves and a Neolithic burial pit.
• Santa Verna is not a UNESCO site. It’s a “Class A” archaeological site under Maltese law, which in theory affords the highest protection. In practice, the buffer zone is far too small, leaving significant parts of the surrounding area exposed to both questionable legal projects and outright illegal development.
• Only one burial pit has been formally identified so far. That said, there are other features resembling burial pits nearby, which authorities have so far chosen not to investigate.
• The temple itself dates to around 3,200–2,500 BCE (about 5,000 years old). The real danger lies in the surrounding landscape, which holds evidence of a village dating back to roughly 5,400 BCE, about two millennia earlier.
• The threatened area, about 230 m from the temple, known as Ta’ Lablab, contains not only the Neolithic children’s burial pit but also an important cave system. Shockingly, authorities approved its demolition in exchange for a mere €5,000 “Heritage Gain” settlement. While not part of the megalithic complex, Ta’ Lablab was clearly part of the same prehistoric landscape and likely home to the farmers and builders of both Ggantija and Santa Verna.

For more information, see the Malta-Arch website at https://www.malta-arch.com/

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Remains of megalithic Santa Verna Temple, Xagħra, Gozo, Malta. Dreizung, CC BY 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

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Above and below: the Santa Verna temple remains. Image courtesy Matla-Arch.

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Article Source: Malta-Arch news release.

University of Colorado at Boulder—Thousands of years ago, ancient humans undertook a treacherous journey, crossing hundreds of miles of ice over the Bering Strait to the unknown world of the Americas.

Now, a new study led by the University of Colorado Boulder suggests that these nomads carried something surprising with them—a chunk of DNA inherited from a now-extinct species of hominin, which may have helped humans adapt to the challenges of their new home.

The researchers will publish their results Aug. 21 in the journal Science.

“In terms of evolution, this is an incredible leap,” said Fernando Villanea, one of two lead authors of the study and an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at CU Boulder. “It shows an amount of adaptation and resilience within a population that is simply amazing.”

The research takes a new look at a species known as Denisovans. These ancient relatives of humans lived from what is today Russia south to Oceania and west to the Tibetan Plateau. The Denisovans likely went extinct tens of thousands of years ago. Their existence, however, remains poorly understood: Scientists identified the first known Denisovan just 15 years ago from the DNA in a fragment of bone found in a cave in Siberia. Like Neanderthals, Denisovans may have had prominent brows and no chins.

“We know more about their genomes and how their body chemistry behaves than we do about what they looked like,” Villanea said.

A growing body of research has shown that Denisovans interbred with both Neanderthals and humans, profoundly shaping the biology of people living today.

To explore those connections, Villanea and his colleagues including co-lead author David Peede from Brown University, examined the genomes of humans from across the globe. In particular, the team set its sights on a gene called MUC19, which plays an important role in the immune system.

The group discovered that humans with Indigenous American ancestry are more likely than other populations to carry a variant of this gene that came from Denisovans. In other words, this ancient genetic heritage may have helped humans survive in the completely new ecosystems of North and South America.

A little-known gene

Villanea added that MUC19’s function in the human body is about as mysterious as Denisovans themselves. It’s one of 22 genes in mammals that produce mucins. These proteins make mucus, which, among other functions, can protect tissues from pathogens.

“It seems like MUC19 has a lot of functional consequences for health, but we’re only starting to understand these genes,” he said. 

Previous research has shown that Denisovans carried their own variant of the MUC19 gene, with a unique series of mutations, which they passed onto some humans. That kind of admixture was common in the ancient world: Most humans alive today carry some Neanderthal DNA, whereas Denisovan DNA makes up as much as 5% of the genomes of people from Papua New Guinea. 

In the current study, Villanea and colleagues wanted to learn more about how these genetic time capsules shape our evolution.

The group pored through already published data on the genomes of modern humans from Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico and Colombia where Indigenous American ancestry and DNA is common. 

They discovered that one in three modern people of Mexican ancestry carry a copy of the Denisovan variant of MUC19—and particularly in portions of their genome that come from Indigenous American heritage. That’s in contrast to people of Central European ancestry, only 1% of whom carry this variant.

The researchers discovered something even more surprising: In humans, the Denisovan gene variant seems to be surrounded by DNA from Neanderthals. 

“This DNA is like an Oreo, with a Denisovan center and Neanderthal cookies,” Villanea said.

A new world

Here’s what Villanea and his colleagues suspect happened: Before humans crossed the Bering Strait, Denisovans interbred with Neanderthals, passing the Denisovan MUC19 to their offspring. Then, in a game of genetic telephone, Neanderthals bred with humans, sharing some Denisovan DNA. It’s the first time scientists have identified DNA jumping from Denisovans to Neanderthals and then humans. 

Later, humans migrated to the Americas where natural selection favored the spread of this borrowed MUC19.

Why the Denisovan variant became so common in North and South America but not in other parts of the world isn’t yet clear. Villanea noted that the first people who lived in the Americas likely encountered conditions unlike anything else in human history, including new kinds of food and diseases. Denisovan DNA may have given them additional tools to contend with challenges like these.

“All of a sudden, people had to find new ways to hunt, new ways to farm, and they developed really cool technology in response to those challenges,” he said. “But, over 20,000 years, their bodies were also adapting at a biological level.”

To build that picture, the anthropologist is planning to study how different MUC19 gene variants affect the health of humans living today. For now, Villanea said the study is a testament to the power of human evolution. 

“What Indigenous American populations did was really incredible,” Villanea said. “They went from a common ancestor living around the Bering Strait to adapting biologically and culturally to this new continent that has every single type of biome in the world.”

Other co-authors of the new study include researchers at Brown University; the University of Washington School of Medicine; Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México; University of Copenhagen; Clemson University; University of Padova; University of Turin; University of California, Berkeley; Université Paris- Saclay; and Trinity College Dublin.

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Replica of a Denisovan molar, originally found in Denisova Cave in 2000, at the Museum of Natural Sciences in Brussels, Belgium. Thilo Parg, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons

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Article Source: University of Colorado Boulder news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Neolithic people from two sites in northeastern France practiced overkill and mutilation of foreign invaders, new research suggests. The work, which provides some of the earliest evidence for grisly war-related victory celebrations, involved the analysis of brutalized skeletal remains and severed limbs found in prehistoric pits dating back to between 4300 and 4150 BCE. The presence of these burial pits at the Achenheim and Bergheim sites implies that these Neolithic communities were at war. Other archaeological evidence across the Upper Rhine Valley shows that military invasions caused rapid cultural upheaval at this time. Yet, whether the people buried here were prisoners of war – and whether they were locals or foreigners – remained unknown until now. To answer this, Teresa Fernández-Crespo and colleagues analyzed 82 human skeletal remains from the Achenheim and Bergheim sites. Some of these remains bore violent injuries, including unhealed skull fractures and severed upper limbs, indicating these people were victims of war violence. Other remains had no signs of unhealed trauma or dismemberment, suggesting these people were given a normal burial. Fernández-Crespo et al. also performed isotopic analyses on the remains, and discovered significant differences in the isotopic fingerprints of victims versus non-victims. Doing so enabled the researchers to deduce that the victims came from elsewhere, while non-victims lived locally. This suggests that the victims belonged to invading groups and were killed by locals defending their territory, the authors say. “It is probable that the identities of these victims can be attributed to socially remote, nonlocal enemies that became trophies or captives during battles or raids and that may have been considered by their captors as not properly ‘human’ and hence warranting such treatment,” Fernández-Crespo et al. write.

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Overhead views of late Middle Neolithic violence-related
human mass deposits of the Alsace region, France, analyzed in this study. (A) Pit 157 from
Bergheim Saulager (Photo credit: Fanny Chenal, INRAP).

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Overhead views of late Middle Neolithic violence-related human mass deposits of the Alsace region, France, analyzed in this study. (B) pit 124 from Achenheim Strasse 2, RD 45 (Photo credit: Philippe Lefranc, INRAP).

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Article Source: AAAS news release

*Multi-isotope biographies and identities of victims of martial victory celebrations in Neolithic Europe, Science Advances, 20-Aug-2025. 10.1126/sciadv.adv3162 

Tel Aviv University—An international study led by researchers from Tel Aviv University and the French National Centre for Scientific Research provides the first scientific evidence that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens had biological and social relations, and even interbred for the first time, in the Land of Israel. The research team found a combination of Neanderthal and Homo sapiens traits in the skeleton of a five-year-old child discovered about 90 years ago in the Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. The fossil, estimated to be about 140,000 years old, is the earliest human fossil in the world to display morphological features of both of these human groups, which until recently were considered two separate species. The study was led by Prof. Israel Hershkovitz of the Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences at Tel Aviv University and Anne Dambricourt-Malassé of the French National Centre for Scientific Research. The findings of this historic discovery were published in the journal l’Anthropologie.

“Genetic studies over the past decade have shown that these two groups exchanged genes,” explains Prof. Hershkovitz. “Even today, 40,000 years after the last Neanderthals disappeared, part of our genome—2 to 6 percent—is of Neanderthal origin. But these gene exchanges took place much later, between 60,000 to 40,000 years ago. Here, we are dealing with a human fossil that is 140,000 years old. In our study, we show that the child’s skull, which in its overall shape resembles that of Homo sapiens—especially in the curvature of the skull vault—has an intracranial blood supply system, a lower jaw, and an inner ear structure typical of Neanderthals.”

For years, Neanderthals were thought to be a group that evolved in Europe, migrating to the Land of Israel only about 70,000 years ago, following the advance of European glaciers. In a groundbreaking 2021 study published in the prestigious journal Science, Prof. Hershkovitz and his colleagues showed that early Neanderthals lived in the Land of Israel as early as 400,000 years ago. This human type, which Prof. Hershkovitz called “Nesher Ramla Homo” (after the archaeological site near the Nesher Ramla factory where it was found), encountered Homo sapiens groups that began leaving Africa about 200,000 years ago—and, according to the current study’s findings, interbred with them. The child from the Skhul Cave is the earliest fossil evidence in the world of the social and biological ties forged between these two populations over thousands of years. The local Neanderthals eventually disappeared when they were absorbed into the Homo sapiens population, much like the later European Neanderthals.

The researchers reached these conclusions after conducting a series of advanced tests on the fossil. First, they scanned the skull and jaw using micro-CT technology at the Shmunis Family Anthropology Institute at Tel Aviv University, creating an accurate three-dimensional model from the scans. This enabled them to perform a complex morphological analysis of the anatomical structures (including non-visible structures such as the inner ear) and compare them to various hominid populations. To study the structure of the blood vessels surrounding the brain, they also created an accurate 3D reconstruction of the inside of the skull.

“The fossil we studied is the earliest known physical evidence of mating between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens,” says Prof. Hershkovitz. “In 1998, a skeleton of a child was discovered in Portugal that showed traits of both of these human groups. But that skeleton, nicknamed the ‘Lapedo Valley Child,’ dates back to 28,000 years ago—more than 100,000 years after the Skhul child. Traditionally, anthropologists have attributed the fossils discovered in the Skhul Cave, along with fossils from the Qafzeh Cave near Nazareth, to an early group of Homo sapiens. The current study reveals that at least some of the fossils from the Skhul Cave are the result of continuous genetic infiltration from the local—and older—Neanderthal population into the Homo sapiens population.”

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The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens.  Tel Aviv University

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The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals.  Tel Aviv University

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The Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel. Tel Aviv University

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Article Source: Tel Aviv University news release.

*https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003552125000366?via%3Dihub

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Ancient Oldowan toolmakers transported raw stone materials for toolmaking roughly 600,000 years earlier than thought, a new study* suggests. The geochemical analyses of 401 artifacts from a site in Kenya indicates these early hominins sourced higher-quality stones from up to 13 kilometers away – meaning that they could strategize about land-use and remember locations of high-quality resources. Primitive stone toolmaking took hold roughly 3.3 million years ago. 700,000 years later, the practice became more refined, marking the advent of what archaeologists call the Oldowan industry. Scientists theorized that early Oldowan toolmakers relied on local resources until 2 million years ago. Now though, Emma Finestone and colleagues show that Oldowan toolmakers were transporting raw stone material from faraway at the onset of the Oldowan industry. First, the researchers examined the geochemical composition of stone artifacts from the Nyayanga site in Kenya, including Bukoban quartzite and Nyanzian rhyolite. Then, they mapped the sources of these artifacts’ raw materials and found that the stones must have come from roughly 13 kilometers away. The findings strongly suggest that Oldowan toolmakers could use mental maps, plan in advance, and judge stone quality 600,000 years earlier than believed. Notably, the Nyayanga site holds fossils of Paranthropus, an extinct genus of hominid. “Although the taxonomic identity of Nyayanga toolmakers remains unknown, the association of this [artifact] assemblage with fossils attributed to the genus Paranthropus calls into question whether the transport of core and flake technology was exclusive to genus Homo,” Finestone et al. write.

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A map of the Nyayanga archaeological locality in western Kenya and primary outcrops of Nyanzian and Bukoban rocks. A variety of rocks from the Nyanzian and Bukoban rock supergroups were used in tool manufacture. E.M Finestone, J.S. Oliver, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Nyayanga amphitheater in July 2025 showing the location of excavation 3 (lower on slope) and excavation 5 (higher on slope). Tan and reddish-brown sediments are late Pliocene deposits with fossils and Oldowan tools. T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Oldowan tools made from a variety of raw materials that were sourced from over 10 km away from the Nyayanga locality. E.M Finestone, J.S. Oliver, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Pounding tool exc3-103 and flake exc3-104 manufactured from nonlocal raw materials, found associated with a butchered hippopotamid skeleton in excavation 3 in July 2016.  T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Oldowan flake exc3-1548 in direct spatial association with hippopotamid scapula exc3-1549, found in July 2017 as part of excavation 3 hippopotamid butchery assemblage. T.W. Plummer, Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

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Article Source: AAAS news release.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)—Mayan cultural centers were not uniformly susceptible to extreme drought events during the Terminal Classic Period, new research* finds. By comparing a novel paleo-climate record derived from a stalagmite with archaeological records at Yucatán sites including Chichén Itzá and Uxmal, the study challenges a theory that simplistically connects drought cycles to the abandonment of settlements. Around 800 to 1000 CE, sociopolitical unrest wracked the Maya Lowlands as people abandoned cultural centers. Paleoclimate records have suggested that this timeframe, called the Terminal Classic Period, coincided with recurring droughts that lasted from 1 to 10 years. Now, Daniel James and colleagues have focused on regional differences to investigate the connection between droughts and Mayan activity in the northwest Yucatán Peninsula in modern-day Mexico. They conducted isotopic analyses on a stalagmite (Tzab06-1) collected from a cave near Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and other Classic Maya sites. By studying laminations within the stalagmite, which grew from roughly 871 to 1021 CE, they reconstructed sub-annual wet- and dry-season rainfall records. The northwest Yucatán experienced 1- to 13-year-long extreme drought events episodically within the timeframe, including 8 extreme wet-season droughts that each lasted more than 3 years. Comparing drought records with existing archaeological evidence showed that activity at Chichén Itzá, Uxmal, and other regional sites decreased at different times and not always in tandem with drought cycles. The authors attribute this variability to differences in water management infrastructure, and to variations in connectedness beyond the region through trade. “Chichén Itzá controlled a vast system of tribute collection,” the authors write. “Perhaps, this was manageable with available water conservation techniques to mitigate crop failures, enabling populations at Chichén Itzá to recover, whereas frequent alternation of wet and dry periods reduced seasonal predictability and prevented re-establishment of less centralized and resilient polities elsewhere.”

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Dome. Interior of cave where research performed.  Mark Brenner, 2023

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Labna, a Mesoamerican archaeological site and ceremonial center of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the Puuc Hills region of the Yucatán Peninsula.  Mark Brenner, 2022

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Logging information for study.  Sebastian Breitenbach, 2022

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SYP. Research team within a cave. Sebastian Breitenbach, 2022

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Article Source: AAAS news release.

New York City is often seen as a modern metropolis of steel and glass, towering above the hustle of millions of people. But beneath its concrete streets and behind the walls of its brownstones lies another story—one that begins centuries before the Empire State Building touched the sky. This hidden history is being unearthed, piece by piece, through the science of archaeology, and it has a profound impact on how renovation and construction projects are carried out in the city today.

Welcome to the fascinating intersection of archaeology and urban renovation—a complex dance between preservation and progress, between the shovel and the scaffold.

The Hidden Layers of New York City

New York City is built on layers—not just layers of infrastructure or bureaucracy, but actual historical strata. Every time a foundation is dug or a wall is torn down, there’s a chance of uncovering relics from centuries past. From colonial settlements to Native American encampments, from Dutch traders to early African American communities, the city’s soil holds secrets that must be respected and protected.

This deeply layered history means that developers and renovators are not just dealing with bricks and mortar—they’re dealing with heritage.

Archaeology’s Role in Urban Development

In many cities around the world, archaeology is closely tied to urban planning and development. NYC is no different. The Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), established in 1965, oversees archaeological matters in the city, particularly in designated Historic Districts or areas suspected of holding archaeological significance.

When a construction or renovation project is proposed, especially in older parts of the city like Lower Manhattan, the Financial District, Brooklyn Heights, or Harlem, developers may be required to conduct an archaeological review. This review ensures that potential historical resources are not destroyed without documentation or consideration.

Regulatory Framework: Renovation Rules Grounded in Archaeology

The rules that govern renovation in NYC are heavily influenced by archaeological concerns, especially in sensitive areas. Here’s how the process typically works:

1. Phase IA Archaeological Assessment

Before any ground is broken, an environmental or historical consultant may conduct a Phase IA study. This involves researching the historical significance of the site, reviewing old maps, deeds, and documents to determine whether archaeological artifacts might be present.

2. Phase IB Testing

If Phase IA suggests the potential for buried resources, a Phase IB investigation is initiated. This stage involves actual digging—test pits, core samples, or soil boring—to physically check for artifacts.

3. Phase II Site Evaluation

If significant materials are found, a Phase II study may be required. This involves broader excavation and documentation of findings. Depending on the nature of the artifacts, this could delay the project for weeks or even months.

4. Phase III Data Recovery

In rare cases where the findings are exceptionally significant, full-scale excavation (Phase III) is conducted before construction can resume. This is the most time-consuming and expensive phase.

Not Just a Legal Hurdle—A Moral and Cultural Responsibility

While some developers see archaeological reviews as an obstacle, many recognize the importance of preserving the city’s heritage. Every artifact tells a story—of the city’s first immigrants, of industries that no longer exist, of communities that were displaced or forgotten.

There have been extraordinary discoveries during renovation and construction, such as:

• The African Burial Ground: Discovered in the 1990s during construction for a federal office building, this site in Lower Manhattan revealed over 400 skeletal remains of African slaves buried in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, it is a National Monument and a sobering reminder of the city’s past.
• The Stadt Huys Block: Excavations in Lower Manhattan unearthed remnants of the city’s first city hall, dating back to the 17th century Dutch colonial period. Renovation projects in the area are now tightly controlled to avoid disturbing what’s left.
• Colonial-Era Taverns and Homes: During utility or renovation work in neighborhoods like the South Street Seaport or Wall Street, teams have found the foundations of colonial homes, taverns, and even pottery and tools.

Each of these discoveries has influenced how future renovations are planned and executed.

How Renovators Navigate Archaeological Constraints

Renovating or restoring a building in New York, particularly one that’s landmarked or historically located, often requires navigating a complex web of permits and approvals.

Some key steps that responsible renovation contractors take include:

Pre-Construction Research

Before bidding on a project, experienced contractors often do their own historical research to assess potential risks. Knowing the past of a location can help in cost estimation and project timelines.

Working with Preservationists and Archaeologists

Contractors frequently collaborate with professionals trained in archaeology and historic preservation. This ensures that any findings are handled properly and in compliance with city regulations.

Adapting Design Plans

Sometimes the design or layout of a renovation must be altered to accommodate archaeological preservation. For example, an underground parking garage might be relocated to avoid disturbing historical foundations.

Training and Awareness

Construction crews are trained to recognize potential artifacts or soil changes that could indicate buried structures or objects. If anything is found, work is paused, and experts are brought in.

Economic and Cultural Impact of Archaeology on Renovation

It’s easy to assume that all these rules just add cost and delay. But there are long-term benefits—economic, cultural, and even reputational.

Economic Value

Buildings or sites with documented historical significance often appreciate in value. They can attract tourism, commercial interest, or funding from preservation societies and grants.

Cultural Identity

Archaeology helps preserve the stories of marginalized communities that might otherwise be forgotten. Renovating with respect to these histories helps neighborhoods retain their cultural identity.

Reputation

Renovation firms known for respecting historical processes often enjoy better reputations and greater trust among government agencies and historical societies.

Case Study: Renovation at the South Street Seaport

A real-world example of archaeology influencing renovation is at the South Street Seaport Historic District. Developers planning upgrades to the 19th-century warehouse buildings had to conduct archaeological testing due to the area’s significance as a port since the 1600s.

Archaeologists found remnants of piers, goods storage, and even whalebone fragments used in early commerce. The developers adjusted their plans to preserve the foundations and incorporated archaeological displays into the final design, blending history with modernization.

The Future of Renovation in NYC: A Partnership with the Past

As the city continues to evolve, the role of archaeology in renovation is only growing. Technology like ground-penetrating radar, 3D scanning, and AI-enhanced mapping tools are making it easier to identify and protect hidden historical elements.

Meanwhile, a greater awareness of social justice and cultural preservation is leading to more inclusive archaeological practices. Projects are increasingly evaluated not just for colonial or commercial artifacts but for traces of immigrant, African-American, Indigenous, and working-class lives.

This shift is ensuring that the narrative of NYC’s past is as diverse and rich as its present.

Conclusion: Building on History, Not Over It

New York City’s skyline is constantly evolving, but its foundations are deep—rooted in the lives of countless people who came before us. By embracing archaeology as a partner rather than a problem, renovation projects can achieve something far more meaningful than just new floors or façades—they can become bridges between past and present.

For property owners and developers, this means choosing contractors who understand not just how to build, but how to preserve. Whether you’re restoring a Brooklyn brownstone or modernizing a downtown loft, working with experts who respect the past ensures a future built on integrity.

If you’re seeking professionals who blend expert craftsmanship with historical sensitivity, consider working with the best exterior renovation contractors in NYC. They’ll help you build not just walls, but legacy.

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Cover Image, Top Left: Qasinka, CC0 1.0 Universal, Wikimedia Commons

Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—An international team of researchers from Germany, Georgia, Armenia, and Norway has analyzed ancient DNA from 230 individuals across 50 archaeological sites from Georgia and Armenia. Within the framework of the Max Planck-Harvard Research Center for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean, co-directed by Johannes Krause, Director at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, and Philipp Stockhammer, Professor at Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, this study reconstructs the genetic interactions of populations in the Southern Caucasus over time and down to the level of individual mobility.

Mostly constant ancestry with traces of Bronze Age migrations

Spanning from the Early Bronze Age (circa 3500 BCE) to after the Migration Period (circa 500 CE), the research shows that people in the Southern Caucasus retained a mostly constant ancestry profile. “The persistence of a deeply rooted local gene pool through several shifts in material culture is exceptional”, says population geneticist Harald Ringbauer, whose research team at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology led this study, “This stands out compared to other regions across Western Eurasia, where many changes were linked to substantial movement of people.”

While there was overall genetic continuity, the research also found evidence of migration from neighboring regions. During the later phases of the Bronze Age, in particular, a portion of the area’s genetic makeup traces back to people from Anatolia and the Eurasian steppe pastoralists—reflecting cultural exchange, technological innovation, burial practices, and the expansion of economic systems, such as mobile pastoralism. Following this period, the population size in the area increased, and genetic signatures of mixing were often more transient or confined to singular mobile individuals.

Cranial deformation: introduced by migration, then turned into a local tradition

One of the study’s most striking findings concerns early Medieval individuals from the Iberian Kingdom, located in present-day eastern Georgia, who had intentionally deformed skulls. This cultural practice was long thought to be tied to Central Eurasian Steppe populations. “We identified numerous individuals with deformed skulls who were genetically Central Asian, and we even found direct genealogical links to the Avars and Huns ” says lead author and geneticist Eirini Skourtanioti from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Ludwig Maximilians University Munich. “However, our analyses revealed that most of these individuals were locals, not migrants. This is a compelling example of the cultural adoption of a practice that was likely disseminated in the area by nomadic groups.”

Liana Bitadze, head of the Anthropological Research Laboratory at Tbilisi State University in Georgia and a co-author of the study, corroborates the significance of this finding: “Previously, we addressed this question through comparative morphometric analyses. Now, ancient DNA analysis has created a completely new line of evidence, helping us to reach more definitive answers.”

A melting pot of diverse ancestries

The study also highlights how urban centers and early Christian sites in eastern Georgia became melting pots of people beginning in Late Antiquity. This further emphasizes the long-standing role of the Caucasus as a dynamic cultural and genetic frontier.

“Historical sources mention how the Caucasus Mountains served both as a barrier and a corridor for migration during Late Antiquity. Our study shows that increased individual mobility was a key feature of the emerging urban centers in the region”, says Xiaowen Jia, co-lead author and PhD researcher at Ludwig Maximilians University Munich.

This research sets a new standard for understanding the population histories of regions that have long been overlooked by archaeogenetics.

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Mtskheta, the ancient capital of the Iberian Kingdom, and the confluence of the Kura and Aragvi rivers, about 20 kilometers north of Tbilisi, Georgia. This study analyzed the DNA of individuals buried in the Samtavro cemetery, a small white structure on the right side of the photo. Several of these individuals had artificially deformed skulls. Mtskheta was the economic and political capital of the Kingdom of Iberia for nearly a millennium, until the fifth century CE, and was also a center of early Christianization.  © Harald Ringbauer

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Article Source: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology news release.

*The genetic history of the Southern Caucasus from the Bronze age to the Early Middle Ages: 5,000 years of genetic continuity despite high mobility, Cell, 7-Aug-2025.  10.1016/j.cell.2025.07.013 

Griffith University—Recent findings, made by Griffith University researchers, show that early hominins made a major deep-sea crossing to reach the Indonesian island of Sulawesi much earlier than previously established, based on the discovery of stone tools dating to at least 1.04 million years ago at the Early Pleistocene (or ‘Ice Age’) site of Calio.

Budianto Hakim from the National Research and Innovation Agency of Indonesia (BRIN) and Professor Adam Brumm from the Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution at Griffith University led the research published today in Nature.

A field team led by Hakim excavated a total of seven stone artefacts from the sedimentary layers of a sandstone outcrop in a modern corn field at the southern Sulawesi location.

In the Early Pleistocene, this would have been the site of hominin tool-making and other activities such as hunting, in the vicinity of a river channel.

The Calio artifacts consist of small, sharp-edged fragments of stones (flakes) that the early human tool-makers struck from larger pebbles that had most likely been obtained from nearby riverbeds.

The Griffith-led team used palaeomagnetic dating of the sandstone itself and direct-dating of an excavated pig fossil, to confirm an age of at least 1.04 million years for the artifacts.

Previously, Professor Brumm’s team had revealed evidence for hominin occupation in this archipelago, known as Wallacea, from at least 1.02 million years ago, based on the presence of stone tools at Wolo Sege on the island of Flores, and by around 194 thousand years ago at Talepu on Sulawesi.

The island of Luzon in the Philippines, to the north of Wallacea, had also yielded evidence of hominins from around 700,000 years ago.

“This discovery adds to our understanding of the movement of extinct humans across the Wallace Line, a transitional zone beyond which unique and often quite peculiar animal species evolved in isolation,” Professor Brumm said.

“It’s a significant piece of the puzzle, but the Calio site has yet to yield any hominin fossils; so while we now know there were tool-makers on Sulawesi a million years ago, their identity remains a mystery.”

The original discovery of Homo floresiensis (the ‘hobbit’) and subsequent 700,000-year-old fossils of a similar small-bodied hominin on Flores, also led by Professor Brumm’s team, suggested that it could have been Homo erectus that breached the formidable marine barrier between mainland Southeast Asia to inhabit this small Wallacean island, and, over hundreds of thousands of years, underwent island dwarfism.

Professor Brumm said his team’s recent find on Sulawesi has led him to wonder what might have happened to Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times the size of Flores?

“Sulawesi is a wild card – it’s like a mini-continent in itself,” he said.

“If hominins were cut off on this huge and ecologically rich island for a million years, would they have undergone the same evolutionary changes as the Flores hobbits? Or would something totally different have happened?”

The study ‘Hominins on Sulawesi during the Early Pleistocene’ has been published in Nature.

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Stone tools were excavated from Calio, Sulawesi, and dated to over 1.04 million years ago. The scale bars are 10 mm.  M.W. Moore/University of New England

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Article Source: Griffith University news release.

Inspired by a TV documentary on Stonehenge’s bluestones, Sullivan applied Lean Manufacturing techniques, including root-cause analysis tools like the 5 Whys, to develop the Conveyor System. As detailed in his original Megalithic Portal post, the system uses smaller bluestones arranged in a line or grid as a raised base pathway (6-10 stones, ~2-3 meters long) to elevate and distribute weight, preventing sinking in soft ground. Wooden rollers (2-3 dowels, 10-20 cm diameter) are placed under the load stone (2-5 tons), allowing low-friction rolling. Leapfrogging relocates rear bases and rollers forward after each 1-2 meter advance, creating a continuous, reusable conveyor for distances like Stonehenge’s 240 km bluestone route.

The e-book explains the system’s mechanics, including how friction naturally “dresses” stones through abrasion, and provides step-by-step applications:

• For Stonehenge: Transports bluestones with 5-10 minute cycles, covering 1-2 km/day, outperforming rollers by eliminating resets and saving 50% labor.
• For Egyptian Pyramids: Adapts to ramps and Nile hauls, meeting 1-2 minute takt time for 315 blocks/day with parallels, while rollers fail due to bottlenecks and congestion.

Sullivan’s 3P project prototypes—concrete blocks on grass—confirmed feasibility, with Grok 4 used in 2025 for calculations validating timelines and efficiencies.

“This system challenges us to rethink ancient capabilities,” says Sullivan. “From Stonehenge’s bluestones to Giza’s blocks, it offers a practical, waste-free solution aligned with Neolithic resources.”

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The e-book is available for download.

A youtube video demonstrating the method is available here.

More information can also be obtained at the Megalithic Portal.

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Cover Image, Top Left: Stonehenge. Walkerssk, Pixabay